Chapter 3

Lecture 4

Historical Geography of Canada

• Three major events in Canada’s history have had a profound impact on Canadian society:

  • The arrival of the First People in North America

  • The colonization of North America by France and England

  • The influx of settlers from Eastern Europe

• The first people:

  • Hunters from the Old World (the Eastern Hemisphere) were the first to arrive in North America about 20,000 years ago (after the ice covering Canada had melted some).

  • They crossed the Beringia Land Bridge from Siberia to Alaska; some continued east into Yukon and others traveled south along the Pacific coast.

  • The land bridge was accessible at the time because sea level was much lower than it is today.

  • Migration routes: as the continental ice sheet retreated, descendants of the hunters traveled along the ice-free corridor that opened along the foothills of the Rocky Mountains.

  • The first people commonly hunted mammoths with pointed spears. Mammoths became extinct due to climate change and hunting about 11,000 years ago. They then adapted to a mixed diet of meat (buffalo and caribou), fish and plants.

  • The revised diet allowed the First People to remain in a specific geographic territory. This led to separated groups of social units which marked the beginning of Indigenous tribes. Trade among the groups began about 10,000 years ago.

  • Arctic Migration: the Laurentide ice sheet began retreating from Nunavut about 5000 years ago. After this point, groups of sea hunters were able to advance eastward and northward. They hunted walruses, seals, and other marine animals. 

    • The Thule people migrated to this area 1000 years ago. They are the ancestors of the current Inuit.

• Contact with Europeans:

  • European explorers considered the New World (the Western Hemisphere) terra nullius (empty land).

  • Contact between Europeans and Indigenous Peoples occurred in what is now Canada several times from the late 1400s through the 1500s. (There were battles. Europeans did not expect to see Inuit people).

  • Just before first contact, there may have been as many as 500,000 Indigenous Peoples living in what is now Canada. By 1871, the Indigenous population had declined by 80% to approximately 100,000.

  • Contributions to this population decline:

    • Spread of new diseases by explorers and fur traders

    • Loss of hunting grounds to European settlers

• The Second People:

  • The second people were of French or British descent.

  • French explorers established Quebec City in 1608 (oldest city in Canada), the first permanent settlement by Europeans in Canada. The area became known as New France and grew to a population of 60,000 before British explorers arrived along the St. Lawrence River in the mid 1700s.

  • After the British Conquest of New France in 1759, British immigrants began moving to the area. This was the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (1759) that the British won - important to remember.

  • Waves of British immigration:

    • First wave: British Loyalists living in the US supported Britain during the US War of Independence (1775-83). After Britain was defeated, the Loyalists moved to Canada (British North America). Most Loyalists settled in Nova Scotia or Southern Ontario (helped to grow the population of southern Ontario).

    • Second wave: During the early to mid 1800s, nearly 1 million people migrated from the British Isles. This resulted from a deteriorating economy in Britain and the potato famine in Ireland (immigration has had a huge influence on growing our society).

• Canada at Confederation

  • In 1867, the population of British North America (now Canada) was 3.5 million.

  • Approximately 75% of the population lived in Ontario or Quebec and 20% lived in New Brunswick or Nova Scotia. At the time, 60% of the overall population was of British descent.

    • These are the four original provinces. Joined July 1st, 1867 (Canadian Confederation).

    • John A Macdonald = first Canadian Prime Minister

  • Along the Red River, the Metis (a mix of Indigenous and European ancestry) represented over 90% of the population

  • Canada became an independent country in 1867 when four small British colonies united:

    • Upper Canada (now Ontario) (~ in relation to the St. Lawrence river, Ontario was up river vs Quebec down river), Lower Canada (now Quebec), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.

    • These became the first four provinces.

    • Britain was eager for the colonies to form a union to withstand possible annexation by the US. Britain wanted us to form our own country in order to not be taken over by the US.

  • Canada in 1867:

  • Land Transfer:

    • Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory were controlled by the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1870, these lands were sold to the federal government. The federal government felt it was important to purchase and organize this land because:

      • It would diminish the threat of the US annexing the land

      • The federal government had a goal of building a transcontinental railroad - out to the ocean

    • 1870 - Northwest Territories become a Canadian Territory (3 years after confederation).

• The Third People:

  • Clifford Sifton (Minister of the Interior) was assigned the task of settling the Prairie region of Western Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba).

  • The federal government specifically wanted to attract immigrants from Scandinavia, Russia, and Ukraine (those that lived in similar climates and on similar landscapes as the Prairie regions).

  • From 1901 to 1921 the population of the prairie region grew from 400,000 to 2 million.

  • A new dimension was therefore added to Canada’s population: people with neither a French nor British nor Indigenous background.

  • The majority of these new immigrants lived in homesteads. They weren’t given anything when they immigrated here.

  • The impact on the landscape in the prairie region was enormous. This area had previously been occupied by semi-nomadic Indigenous Peoples who hunted buffalo.

Evolution of Canada

• Canada’s history as a country began with the British North America Act passed on July 1st, 1867. This act united the four original British colonies.

• Manitoba then became a province in 1870 followed by British Columbia in 1871. Therefore, in 1871 Canada consisted of 6 provinces and 1 territory (spelled North-West territories at that time).

• The remaining 4 provinces and 2 territories joined Canada in this order:

  • Prince Edward Island (PEI): 1873

  • Yukon: 1898 (fairly early as a result of the goldrush)

  • Alberta; Saskatchewan: 1905

  • Newfoundland and Labrador: 1949

  • Nunavut: 1999

• After Confederation, there were frequent changes in the boundaries of provinces and territories. 

• The greatest dispute was between Quebec and Newfoundland over the boundary of Labrador. In 1927, this dispute was settled by an impartial judicial court in Britain. It said: all land that drains into the Atlantic Ocean was awarded to Labrador (which belonged to Newfoundland which was a British colony at the time).

  • Quebec has never formally accepted this ruling.

• Canada’s internal boundaries: 1873

  • • 7 provinces. See how small Manitoba is. Newfoundland not apart of Canada.

• Canada’s Internal Boundaries: 1905

  • • Saskatchewan and Alberta joined. Manitoba is slightly larger.

• Canada’s Internal Boundaries:1927

Regional Tensions

• Tensions in Canada arise among regions or between regions and the federal government.

• A great challenge for the federal government is to seek a balance between regional needs and demands.

• Despite their efforts, it is rare for regions to be satisfied.

• Tensions to National Unity:

  • Provinces compete against each other for funding from the federal government: health care, education, social services, and transportation are expensive ministries and each of them are provincial responsibilities.

  • Regions in Canada are separated by great distances making trade and commerce between them difficult.

  • Geography encourages some Canadian regions to better align with nearby areas of the US instead (e.g. Ontario trades more with Michigan than they do with Alberta).

• Faultlines in Canada (there are four major faultlines):

  • 1. Centralist / Decentralist

    • Along with economic dominance, Ontario and Quebec exhibit political dominance over other regions.

      • The 338 seats currently in the House of Commons in Ottawa are distributed based on population. Each seat - one for each Member of Parliaments (MP) - represents an electoral riding that contains approximately 118,000 people.

      • In 2024, five new seats will be added to the House of Commons. The new seats are given to the fastest growing regions.

      • Representation in the House of Commons:

      • Rules for Seats in the House of Commons:

        • 1. Each province must have at least as many MPs as it has senators. (This explains why Prince Edward Island has 4 MPs even though its population is only 170,000 - senators in Canada are not elected in Canada, but rather selected by the Prime Minister).

        • 2. Each province must have at least as many MPs as it did in 1976. This rule was instated to ensure a minimum number of MPs representing Quebec - rule put in place to appease Quebec.

    • Western Alienation

      • This falls within the scope of the centralist / decentralist faultline. It is based on the Western provinces’ lack of power (whether real or perceived) to control their own destiny.

      • The national Energy Program (1980-1984) is a good example of the West’s distrust of the federal government. (Alberta and Saskatchewan feel like they are alienated from the rest of the country).

        • Leading to the National Energy Program - energy prices rose dramatically through the 1970s.

        • In the mid-1970s, the federal government agreed to match the oil price in Canada to the world oil price (which was very high at the time). This resulted in huge oil revenues for Alberta.

        • In 1980, the Liberal federal government of Pierre Trudeau changed this with the initiation of the program.

        • Under the program, the federal government refused to continue to match the oil price with the world oil price.

        • Objectives of the program:

          • Ensure a lower cost of oil for Canadians (specifically Ontario and Quebec)

          • Redistribute the revenue from the oil industry to the federal government and then to the other provinces.

        • The program was controversial because resource development falls under provincial powers, yet the federal government forced it through (Canada can technically do whatever they want at the end of the day).

        • As the federal government gained revenue from oil, the revenue to Alberta fell. This resulted in Alberta’s distrust of Liberal federal politicians that is still evident today.

          • Alberta has not elected any Liberal MPs in the 1984, 88, 2006, 08, 11, 19 federal elections. In the 2015 federal election when Justin Trudeau won a majority government, only 4 of Alberta’s 34 ridings voted Liberal.

    • Equalizartion payments:

      • These are payments from the federal government to some provinces. The objective is to ensure a relatively equal standard of living among all Canadians.

      • Payments are only sent to provinces whose ability to raise their own revenue is below the national standard. The media often refers to “have” or “have not” provinces meaning that only the “have not” provinces receive equalization payments.

        • “Have” provinces = BC, Ontario, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Labrador

        • “Have not” provinces = Manitoba, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, PEI

  • 2. Indigenous / Non-Indigenous

    • The federal government has responsibility for matters involving Indigenous Peoples.

    • In the distant past, the federal government advocated for assimilation policies. Assimilation was attempted by educating Indigenous children in residential (boarding) schools operated by Christian churches beginning in 1892. First Prime Minister John A. Macdonald stated that the goal was to “take the Indian out of the child”.

      • They did this by isolating children from their families - forced to speak English / French. Caused them to forget their own culture and language

    • Indigenous Residential Schools

      • Children were removed from their families and not permitted to speak Indigenous languages.

      • The last school closed in 1996 and the entire process has been deemed a colossal mistake resulting in harmful impacts to generations of Indigenous Peoples.

      • In 2008, the federal government apologized for the harm done to children at these schools.

      • In 2021, hundreds of graves were found at former school sites across Western Canada.

    • Current Policies - The federal government has adopted these policies toward rectifying issues involving Indigenous Peoples:

      • Resolving outstanding land claims

      • Recognizing Indigenous rights to self-government

      • Acknowledging that the concerns of each Indigenous group (First Nations, Metis, Inuit) are different and require specific solutions.

    • Indigenous Peoples

      • First Nations: People who may be members of a band who have signed a treaty. They are entitled to certain rights from the federal government.

      • Metis: People of mixed ancestry, either French-Indigenous or English-Indigenous.

      • Inuit: Descendants of the Thule people who live primarily in four main regions of the Arctic and Subarctic.

        • Portions of Quebec, Labrador, Alaska, Greenland

    • Indigenous Rights

      • Land rights are the most fundamental. Treaties negotiated with the federal government in the past have set aside reserves.

      • There are over 600 reserves in Canada; 35% of Indigenous Canadians live on a reserve. Reserves are collectively managed by Indigenous bands.

      • There are many outstanding land claims today across Canada awaiting resolution.

    • Bridging the Faultline

      • Indigenous economic development is a major goal of the federal government. The continued transfer of power from the federal government to Indigenous communities is necessary.

      • The economic and social well-being of reserves varies widely. Some reserves are economically stable due to natural resources or tourism, but many are isolated with very little economic base and extreme poverty (no clean drinking water).

  • 3. Immigration

    • Immigration has historically been used as an instrument of colonial power.

    • After the British Conquest of New France in 1759, the British government set the immigration policy. Their objective was to offset the French-speaking population by encouraging large scale immigration to British North America.

    • The immigration faultline

      • After Confederation, Canada remained closely tied to the British Empire.

      • Immigration policies in the late 1800s continued to reflect the imperialist attitude that British people were superior to people from other countries.

      • Immigrants from other areas were needed due to a shortage of workers; the CP Railway through the Cordillera was largely built by 15,000 Chinese labourers.

      • During the late 1800s and early 1900s, new immigrants were expected to conform to Canadian society. The result was a poor experience for the original farmers of the prairie region who were not of British descent (considered lower class). - there were lies in the advertisements recruiting immigrants -> free farms, healthy climates, etc.

    • The Red River Rebellion

      • This was a clash in 1869 along the Red River between the federal government and the Metis, who were led by Louis Riel.

      • The survey system that the federal government developed to organize land in the West ignored existing Metis land uses. The Metis feared for their rights to the land and their place in the new society. (Canada wanted to expand to the West - considered Metis in the way).

      • The rebellion began when Louis Riel placed his foot on a land surveyor’s chain and told the surveyors to leave. The metis took control of the HBC headquarters. They then formed a provisional government to negotiate the terms to join Canada as a province.

      • Results = Manitoba became a small province on July 15, 1870. Louis Riel is now known as the Father Manitoba. In their negotiations with the federal government, the Metis were granted their major demands:

        • The use of both English and French within the new provincial government

        • A dual system of Protestant and Catholic schools

    • The Northwest Rebellion

      • This was a clash in what is now Saskatchewan in 1885 between the federal government and the Metis together with First Nations.

      • Indigenous Peoples living in the area felt threatened by an advancing wave of settlers. They enlisted the support of Riel who was living in Montana at the time. Riel sent a petition to the federal government with demands but this time they were ignored.

      • An uprising began when an Indigenous group ambushed a Northwest Mounted Police contingent. It resulted in the deaths of 12 officers and 6 Indigenous people.

      • The Canadian army soon advanced on the area and pushed back the Metis and other Indigenous forces. Riel along with 8 Indigenous leaders were executed by hanging (Canada government now had the infrastructure to move a large army/ force).

    • Newcomers to Manitoba

      • From 1870 to 1880, the Metis lost their majority in Manitoba due to people migrating from Ontario (quickly became a minority).

      • What caused the influx of settlers?

        • Ontario no longer had a surplus of agricultural land

        • Wheat farming in Manitoba became profitable due to advances in machinery and rising prices of grain

    • Doukhobors

      • Some of the new settlers to the prairie region of Western Canada preferred to maintain their own cultural traditions.

      • Doukhobors were communalists who did not believe in the individual ownership of land or government regulation. Many of the Doukhobors who moved to Canada had originally refused to serve in the Russian army and were thus persecuted by Russia.

        • Communalist: an advocate of communal living (sharing amongst a community).

      • They were granted blocks of land in the prairie region and freedom from military service. Doukhobors refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the King of Britain or participate in the census.

      • In 1905, the new Minister of the Interior Frank Oliver chose to enforce the Dominion Lands Act. This allowed the federal government to cancel the Doukhobors’ rights to the land (deported).

  • 4. French / English

    • Canadian unity depends on the continuation of the French and English relationship and the need to compromise. 

    • This faultline dates to 1759 with the British Conquest of the French on the Plains of Abraham. Under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, French ceded New France to Britain. This placed French-speaking people under the British monarchy.

    • The Quebec Act (1774)

      • In this act, the British government granted the French these provisions:

        • Continuation of the seigneurial landholding system. 

          • Seigneurial system: the division of land by French settlers into long narrow strips enabling each landholder access to the St. Lawrence River. Streets laid out in long narrow blocks.

          • The British divided land differently, instead using concession system (squares).

        • Guarantee of religious freedom (most French people were catholic)

        • Right to retain the French language

      • The act was well received by the French-speaking people. 

    • British Loyalists

      • After the American Revolution, nearly 40,000 British Loyalists settled in Canada. As the number of English-speaking people in the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Lowlands increased, they wanted more control over their own affairs. This led to the Constitutional Act.

    • The Constitutional Act (1791):

      • In this act, the British colony of Quebec was divided into the provinces of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and Lower Canada (now Quebec). The Ottawa river was the dividing line (and still is today).

      • Over time, many people became upset with the small elitist groups that governed the two provinces and wanted a more democratic system with an elected assembly. Rebellions broke out, leading to the Act of Union.

    • The Act of Union (1841):

      • Britain sent Lord Durham to investigate the grievances of the people and the reasons for the rebellions.

      • He suggested uniting the two provinces under one large government. This would make the French a minority.

      • The united area was named the Province of Canada.

    • Manitoba Schools:

      • When Manitoba became a province, it did so under the assurance of both English and French language rights and the right to be educated in Protestant or Catholic schools.

      • The proportion of Anglo-Protestants in Manitoba increased steadily to become a large majority. The Manitoba government ended funding for Catholic schools in 1890. This decision contributed to the strained relationship between the French and English in Canada and was particularly upsetting to Quebec.

    • The Quiet Revolution:

      • This was a period in the 1960s characterized by the rebirth of pride and confidence among French-speaking residents of Quebec.

      • During this time, the idea that Quebec could separate from Canada to form an independent country started to gain strength. 

      • The growth and revenue generated by Hydro-Quebec was a symbol of Quebec’s revitalized economy. (revolution of ideas rather than fighting - why it was called quiet).

      • The movement intensified when President of France Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec in 1967 and proclaimed “vive le Quebec libre” which translates to “long live a free Quebec”.

      • Two referendums on separation from Canada have been held in Quebec.

        • 1980: 60% voted against separation

        • 1995: 49.5% voted against separation, 48.7 voted for separation (doesn’t add to 100 as some ballots were spoiled, not filled out correctly, etc.).

      • In 2006, Quebec was officially recognized by the federal government as a nation within Canada. (more than just words - government set aside funding for celebrating Quebec’s uniqueness).

        • Nation: a distinct cultural group.