APCG terms review

## I. **Sovereignty, Authority, and Power** ### 🔹 **Sovereignty** * **Definition**: The state's ability to govern itself independently of internal/external interference. * **Examples**: * **UK**: Regained policy-making autonomy through **Brexit** in 2020, exiting the EU and ending supranational control over trade and immigration policy. * **China**: Exercises strong sovereignty over Hong Kong and Taiwan, though the latter is disputed internationally. ### 🔹 **Authority** * **Definition**: The legitimate use of power by a government or leader. * **Examples**: * **Iran**: The Supreme Leader derives authority from the **Islamic Constitution (1979)**, which legitimizes rule through divine/religious leadership. * **Russia**: Vladimir Putin maintains authority via **state-controlled media**, nationalism, and constitutional changes (2020 term reset). ### 🔹 **Power** * **Definition**: The ability to direct or influence others. * **Examples**: * **China**: The CCP uses **internet censorship (Great Firewall)**, **AI surveillance**, and the **Social Credit System** to maintain centralized control. ### 🔹 **Legitimacy** * **Definition**: Citizens' belief in the government’s right to rule. * **Types & Examples**: * **Traditional**: * *Iran*: Religious traditions underpin the authority of clerics. * *UK*: Monarchy is symbolic but still respected due to tradition. * **Charismatic**: * *Russia*: Putin rose from a post-Soviet power vacuum and remains popular due to a strongman image. * **Rational-Legal**: * *Mexico*: Electoral reforms (e.g., creation of INE) have boosted procedural legitimacy since the fall of the PRI’s dominance in 2000. ### 🔹 **Regime vs. Government** * **Regime**: The rules/norms of politics (can be democratic or authoritarian). * **Government**: The individuals who currently hold power. * **Examples**: * *Regime*: China’s **authoritarian one-party rule** has remained consistent since 1949. * *Government*: Nigeria’s government changed in 2023 from Buhari to Tinubu under a **democratic regime**. --- ## II. **Political Institutions** ### 🔹 **State vs. Nation** * **State**: Political entity with a monopoly on force. * **Nation**: Cultural/ethnic identity. * **Examples**: * *Nigeria*: A multi-nation state (Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo). * *UK*: Scottish independence movement shows nationhood within a state. ### 🔹 **Types of Political Systems** * **Parliamentary**: * *UK*: Prime Minister is selected by the **majority party in Parliament**. Fusion of executive and legislative powers. * **Presidential**: * *Mexico, Nigeria*: Presidents are **directly elected** with separated powers (exec, leg, jud). * **Semi-Presidential**: * *Russia*: Dual executive. President (Putin) dominates; PM (Mishustin) handles bureaucracy. ### 🔹 **Head of State vs. Head of Government** * **Head of State**: Symbolic leader (e.g., monarch or president). * **Head of Government**: Day-to-day leadership. * **Examples**: * *UK*: King Charles III (Head of State), PM Rishi Sunak (Head of Gov) * *Russia*: Putin (Head of State), PM Mishustin (Head of Gov) ### 🔹 **Federal vs. Unitary States** * **Federal**: Power constitutionally divided (Mexico, Nigeria, Russia). * *Nigeria*: States have own governors, legislatures. * **Unitary**: Centralized government (UK, China, Iran). * *UK*: Devolution to Scotland/Wales/N. Ireland gives partial autonomy. ### 🔹 **Legislative Structures** * **Bicameral**: * *UK*: House of Commons (elected) + House of Lords (appointed). * *Russia*: Duma (elected) + Federation Council (appointed). * **Unicameral**: * *China*: National People’s Congress (symbolic legislature). ### 🔹 **Judicial Systems** * **Independent Judiciary**: * *UK*: Supreme Court can review government actions. * *Mexico*: Reforms since 1990s strengthened independence. * **Judicial Review**: * *Mexico*: Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. * *Iran*: Guardian Council reviews laws for Islamic compatibility. ### 🔹 **Electoral Systems** * **FPTP (Plurality)**: * *UK, Nigeria, Mexico*: Candidate with most votes wins. * **Proportional Representation**: * *Russia*: Half of Duma is chosen via party-list PR. * **Runoff Elections**: * *Iran*: If no presidential candidate wins 50%+, top two go to second round. ### 🔹 **Party Systems** * **One-Party**: China (CCP only). * **Dominant-Party**: Russia (United Russia), Iran (hardline conservatives dominate). * **Two-Party**: UK (Conservatives, Labour). * **Multiparty**: Mexico (MORENA, PAN, PRI, PRD), Nigeria (APC, PDP). ### 🔹 **Interest Groups** * **Pluralism**: Independent groups compete for influence (UK). * **Corporatism**: State approves/controls groups (Iran, Russia). * *Iran*: All major associations must be compatible with Islamic principles. --- ## III. **Citizens, Society, and the State** ### 🔹 **Civil Society** * Definition: NGOs, unions, advocacy groups outside state control. * Examples: * *Mexico*: NGOs and environmental orgs active post-PRI era. * *Russia/China*: Heavily restricted or co-opted. ### 🔹 **Political Socialization** * Definition: How citizens form political beliefs. * Examples: * *China*: Through state-run schools and censorship. * *UK*: Education system, media, and political parties. ### 🔹 **Social Cleavages** * **Coinciding**: Reinforce divisions. * *Nigeria*: Northern Hausa = Muslim; Southern Igbo/Yoruba = Christian. * **Cross-Cutting**: Diffuse divisions. * *Mexico*: Urban poor may support different parties than rural poor. ### 🔹 **Political Efficacy** * Definition: Citizens’ belief they can influence politics. * *Russia*: Low—due to rigged elections, repression. * *UK*: High—responsive political institutions. ### 🔹 **Civil Liberties & Rights** * **Civil Liberties**: Freedom of expression, religion. * *UK, Mexico*: Protected in law. * *China, Iran*: Restricted (e.g., censorship, morality policing). * **Civil Rights**: Equality under law. * *Nigeria*: Constitutional rights vs. poor enforcement. ### 🔹 **Protests & Social Movements** * *Iran*: 2022–23 Mahsa Amini protests (women’s rights). * *Mexico*: Zapatistas (indigenous rights). * *China*: Hong Kong protests (pro-democracy), suppressed. --- ## IV. **Political and Economic Change** ### 🔹 **Reform** * Gradual policy or structural change. * *UK*: Devolution to Scotland, Wales. * *Mexico*: Electoral reforms in 1990s (INE). ### 🔹 **Revolution** * Rapid, radical change of regime. * *Iran*: 1979 Islamic Revolution replaced monarchy with theocracy. ### 🔹 **Coup d’état** * Military takeover of government. * *Nigeria*: Several coups between 1966–1999. ### 🔹 **Globalization** * Growing economic/political interconnectedness. * *China*: Export economy, Belt and Road Initiative. * *Mexico*: NAFTA/USMCA trade integration. ### 🔹 **Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)** * IMF austerity plans: privatization, reduced spending. * *Nigeria, Mexico*: 1980s–90s debt relief in exchange for neoliberal reforms. ### 🔹 **Neoliberalism** * Free-market policies: privatization, deregulation. * *Mexico*: Privatized oil, telecom sectors; joined NAFTA. ### 🔹 **Rentier State** * Country that relies on natural resource revenue. * *Iran*: Oil funds 60% of budget. * *Nigeria*: Dependent on oil exports; vulnerable to price shocks. --- ## V. **Public Policy** ### 🔹 **Welfare Policy** * *UK*: NHS provides free healthcare to all citizens. * *Mexico*: INSABI expanded care to uninsured in 2020. ### 🔹 **Environmental Policy** * *China*: Anti-pollution measures in 2010s after environmental crises. * *Nigeria*: Oil spills in the Niger Delta; weak regulation. ### 🔹 **Education Policy** * *Iran*: Islamic content in textbooks post-revolution. * *UK*: State education funded by national and local gov’t. ### 🔹 **Healthcare Policy** * *Mexico*: Progressive shift toward universal healthcare. * *China*: Rural areas still under-served despite reforms. ### 🔹 **Transparency**