Lesson 1: HUMAN PERSON IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT

·         Environmental Philosophy

-          It is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents.

-          Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes.

-          This means that as human person, we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but also with other living and non-living elements in our environment.

-          Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that changes in our environment affect us.

·         Environmental Aesthetics

-          A philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it.

·         Major Views of Philosophical Environment

1.       Anthropocentrism

-          When we say “anthropocentric,” we mean “human-centeredness” based on its Greek etymology, Anthropos, which means human. Anthropocentric Environmental Ethics holds the belief in the supremacy of humanity over nature. This presupposes nature as an object of human consumption and the reason why we take care of nature is to ensure we have enough resources to continue living. Focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means by which human are able to meet their needs and survive.

2.       Biocentrism

-          Believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates ethical treatment of animals. All living things deserve equal moral consideration.

3.       Ecocentrism

-          This places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. It believes that humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings about stability and beauty. The influence of humanity on the environment can be best understood if we consider the individual person as a dynamic source of change within his particular environment.

·         Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy

1.       Deep Ecology

-          Arne Naess

-          It assumes that all living things possess equal value and intrinsic worth regardless of their usefulness or utility to other beings.

-          This argues that when a man chooses to separate himself from the environment, it is when he leads himself to selfishness and abuse of nature. This egoism can be combatted through the adoption of relationism where man does not only see himself as related to the environment, but he also sees himself as part of the wider environment. In this sense, what humans do to the environment has also impact to humanity. This deep understanding of the inseparable connection of man and nature is the guide to how we should conduct our actions to the environment.

2.       Social Ecology

-          Murray Bookchin

-          Believes that ecological problems can be traced to social problems.

-          The study of how individuals interact with and respond to the environment around them, and how these interactions affect society and the environment as a whole. Societies that are structured around hierarchies as well as economic classes use their authority to dominate natural resources and exploit the environment for profit and self-interest.

-          Our capacity to socialize, communicate and intelligence should be rendered for the welfare of the environment as well.

3.       Eco- feminism

-          To address environmental problems humanity has to remove the superior vs. inferior in human relations.

-          Ecofeminism also believes that a society that tolerates the oppression of women is directly linked with its tendency to tolerate the abuse of the environment and the degradation of nature.

-          It also features the existing patriarchal and capitalist systems in our society as social and economic exploitative to the detrimental of women and nature. This theory benefits the social and political agenda of both female and nature.

-          This is a gender critique of the environment stating that patriarchy or male-dominated society is the source of environmental exploitation. And to counteract this patriarchal tradition, there is a need for the other gender – the feminine who is also abused in human history to make a stand for the environment. Coming from a dualistic standpoint, the feminists defend their side which is regarded as the weaker ones in the duality system. The same defense for nature they pursue against patriarchy’s exploitation of the environment.

·         Sustainable Development

-          Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

-          3 pillars: The Economy, Society, and Environment

·         Principles of Sustainability

1.       Environmental Integrity

-          It means that any human activities or economic advances should not unduly disrupt the environment and human activities located in the area.

2.       Economic Efficiency

-          This is to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste in using our natural resources.

3.       Equity

-          It refers to conserving our natural resources so that the future generations will still be able to use it.

·         Prudence and Frugality Towards Environment

-          Prudence- the capacity to direct and discipline one’s activities and behavior using reason. It is the behavior that is cautious and, as much as possible, keeps away from any risks.

-          Frugality- the quality of being thrifty. It is the careful supervision of one’s resources.

Lesson 2: FREEDOM OF HUMAN PERSON

·         Freedom

-          The human capacity to act (or not to act) as we choose or prefer without any external compulsion or restraint. It   is   an   intrinsic   and   essential property of a person. An important indication of human freedom is the ability to make choices and perform actions. Our freedom to act sets us apart from other beings.

·         Kinds of Freedom

1.       Physical Freedom

-          It refers to the absence of any PHYSICAL RESTRAINT. The person has the freedom of mobility to go where he/ she wants to go.

2.       Psychological Freedom

-          Also called as “freedom of choice”.

-          The person is free to perform actions that he/ she considers right and wise. A person is also free to act or not to act. Psychological freedom is INNATE and CANOT BE DENIED AS A PERSON.

3.       Moral Freedom

-          Using freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness.

-          Examples: Doing charitable works, Participating on outreach activities, Being sensitive to the needs of other, Being prudent on the use of social media, Volunteer works

·         Elements of Freedom

1.       Voluntariness

-          Voluntariness refers to the ability of a person to act out of his/her own free will and self-determination.

-          Decisions are made out of his/her own free will.

-          Also means that a person may act even if he/she is not required or called to take action.

-          Voluntary acts are free acts which can be assigned a corresponding moral value.

-          Whenever we decide to take action, this results in a certain consequence.

2.       Responsibility

-          Responsibility refers to the person being accountable for his/her actions and their Consequence.

-          A person who had no awareness of the effect of his/her actions can be considered as acting with diminished freedom.

-          Another reality that we have to face as we experience/exercise our freedom is the fact that freedom is experienced through the act of making choices.

                Michael invited Ken to a party club. At the club, Ken was very surprised to see his former classmates and some acquaintances. It was very lively, people were dancing, singing and others were drinking and smoking. But there is something that caught Ken's attention, a group of people in the corner doing something unusual. And to his surprise, Michael was one of them. He came near to them and Michael immediately offer him a methamphetamine (shabu). At first, he refused knowing that the use of it is illegal. However, with the persistent effort of Michael, Ken tried it. Unexpectedly, police officers came to raid the club. Ken was abducted.

Based on this situation, voluntariness was manifested by Ken's personal acceptance of the illegal drug because he uses his own freewill. Responsibility comes with Ken's choice of action. Meaning, he had to accept his fate to be in the prison cell as a consequence of his freewill.

·         Prudence

-          The ability to govern and discipline oneself with the use of reason; it is having caution and giving good judgements in making decisions.

·         Self- reflection

-          Allows us to be more rational in making choices, because sometimes human beings tend to be slaves by their emotions and moods whenever they act certain things.

-          As free beings, exercising our freedom responsibly is very important. Thus, it requires us to reflect on the actions that we are going to take by considering its possible effects and the benefits it has to the people affected by it.

Lesson 3: INTERSUBJECTIVITY

·         Intersubjectivity

-          Intersubjectivity refers to agreement. There is intersubjectivity between people if they agree on a given set of meanings or a definition of the situation. Accepting others, connectedness, and relationship to others

-          Thomas Scheff defines intersubjectivity as "the sharing of subjective states by two or more individuals”.

-          Love is a prime example of intersubjectivity that implies a shared feeling of care and affection, among others.

·         Three Natures of Love

1.       Eros- refers to that part of love constituting a passionate, intense desire for something; it is often referred to as a sexual desire, hence the modern notion of “erotic”.

2.       Philia- entails a fondness and appreciation of the other.

3.       Agape- refers to the paternal love of God for man and of man for God but is extended to include a brotherly love for all humanity.

·         Martin Buber

-          An Australian-born Israeli

-          Philosophy of dialogue, a form of existentialism centered on the distinction between I-Thou relationship and the I-It relationship.

-          Dialogue- It is a deep and genuine relationship between persons. It happens when two persons truly acknowledge each other’s presence and treat each other as equal.

·         Two types of dialogue according to Martin Buber

1.       I-It Relationship - relationship is the human being dehumanize, depersonalize others. (Lead to hate, war, pain, anger, violence and alike) is a relation of subject-to-object. Human beings perceive each other as consisting of specific, isolated qualities, and view themselves as part of a world which consists of things. I-It is a relationship of separateness and detachment.

2.       I-Thou Relationship - a person becomes aware of the other not as a mere object (Respect, Acceptance, Love and alike) is a relation of subject-to-subject. Relationship, human beings are aware of each other as having a unity of being. In the I-Thou relationship, human beings do not perceive each other as consisting of specific, isolated qualities, but engage in a dialogue involving each other's whole being. I-Thou is a relationship of mutuality and reciprocity.

·         Pagmumura

-          To regard and behave toward another in such a manner that the attitude of considering as valueless or cheap is signified. to demean someone whether by language or by deed, as there is slander by word and slander by deed. An attitude or deed by which another is placed in the lower end of the structure.

·         Pagmamahal

-          A disposition of being towards another being by which degree of value is expressed or symbolized. Intimately and essentially bound up with value or “halaga”.

-          To love, therefore, is both to recognize worth and value and to act in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement of the value of the beloved or “minamahal”.

·         Genuine/Authentic Dialogue

1.       Empathy- The ability to share emotions. This emotion is driven by a person’s awareness that the other is a person with thoughts and feelings.

2.       Availability- The willingness of a person to be present and be at the disposal of another.

3.       Ethics for Care- An ethical theory that emphasizes the moral dimension of relationships and interactions.

·         Inauthentic Dialogue

1.       Alienation- Arises when a person ceases to view the other as a distinct and authentic person and merely considers the other person as a mere object or a means to satisfy interests.

Lesson 4: HUMAN PERSON IN SOCIETY

·         Society

-          An organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common territory and culture.

-          It is companionship or friendly association with others, an alliance, a community, or a union.

·         Social Contract Theory

-          During the Age of Enlightenment, social philosophers studied the natural laws that govern human societies.

-          Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau were among the most prominent social theorists who tackled the origins of human society.

·         Thomas Hobbes

-          Persons in their natural states are governed by their desires and those often lead to conflict with their fellowmen.

-          Society is a means by which people seek to control their natural tendencies and impose order.

-          Individuals who establish societies enter into a social contract, an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher authority.

·         John Locke

-          Persons in their natural states are more cooperative and reasonable, and that society is formed through the consent of the individuals that organized it (consent of the governed)

-          Locke’s social contract is a covenant among individuals to cooperate and share the burden of upholding the welfare of the society.

-          People have the right to overthrow a failed government.

·         Jean Jacques Rousseau

-          Advocate the concept of “general will”.

-          Based on the assumption that the people have empowered the government to act on their behalf, and that it is considered to be the best judge of what is most beneficial for society.

Social contract is between people, not the government and give up their rights to the general will. Although there are variations on the social contract theory, one common feature they all have is that different individuals enter into a kind of agreement with one another to form a society. Individual members put aside their self-interest in order to create a community where they may live in harmony with others. It is important to note that society is founded on the concept of the common good.

·         Common Good

-          The common good refers to the social conditions which enable persons and groups to fulfill their goals and achieve well-being.

-          When more than one person desires and works to achieve the same good then in can be said that the common good exists among them.

·         Different Types of Societies

1.       Hunting and Gathering Society

-          The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is hunting and gathering. Hunting and gathering societies produce simple forms of tools used to hunt for animals and gather plants and vegetation for food. In this society, the men are tasked to hunt large animals like deer, elk, moose, and other animals available in their areas. The women, on the other hand, are responsible for the collection of vegetation, berries, and small edible crops. Because of this setup, scientists describe the relationship between men and women as being equal. They frequently move and do not have permanent settlements. Hence, they are nomadic societies. Most of the time, hunters and gatherers live in caves and pit or underground houses that are dug and covered with tree branches and leaves.  

2.       Horticultural and Pastoral Society

-          Horticultural societies are described as semisedentary societies because they do not frequently move as opposed to hunting and gathering societies. These societies subsist through small- scale farming. They produce and use simple forms of hand tools to plant crops. They use hoes and digging sticks to bore holes in the grounds for seed planting. In horticultural societies, there is a surplus of food. Because food supply is more than enough to feed the members of society, some of its members engage in other forms of subsistence like making crafts and trading.

-          The principal means of subsistence of pastoralists is animal domestication. Pastoralist societies developed in dry regions of the world where raising crops was not possible. These societies are classified as animal herders and subsist based on the resources provided by their animals. Pastoralists are also engaged in small- scale trading with other groups. They are described as semisedentary as well because they have settlements, but they do not stay in one place permanently. As opposed to hunting and gathering societies, both horticultural and pastoral societies are described as having unequal social relations because some members act as the ruling elite.

3.       Agrarian or Agricultural Society

-          Involves the large scale and long-term cultivation of crops and domestication of animals. It is characterized by improved technology and the use of tools to aid in farming. It gives rise to a growing population and a more structured social system.

-          During the Neolithic Revolution, agricultural societies developed, and their population increased into millions. They also settled permanently and improved the technology for farming. Through agricultural revolution, members of the society produced surplus of food supply that were transported by animal- powered wagons. As the society developed and its members developed specialization, money became a form of exchange replacing the barter system. The development of agriculture also led to an increase in social inequality because most people in society acted as serfs and slaves while a few members became elites and acted as owners of lands and other resources.

4.       Feudal Society

-          Based on the ownership of land. Originated during Medieval Age in Western Europe

-          Members of society are organized based on status. Social relations are characterized by dependence.

5.       Industrial Society

-          During the Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were harnessed, advanced forms of technology were applied, and machineries were invented. These changes led to industrialization or the transformation of an agricultural society into a production- and manufacturing- based one. This was made possible by the used of advanced sources of energy that operated factory machineries. Industrialization produced a number of changes in society. It created a centralized workplaces, economic interdependence, formal education, and complex social systems. During this time, people left their farmlands and transferred to the urban areas to work in factories.

6.       Post- industrial Society

-          Marked by the establishment of societies based on knowledge, information, and the sale of services.

-          Trends have shifted from industry to the generation, storage, manipulation, and sale of information.

-          Virtual Society

-          Digital Citizen- is a person who is knowledgeable and responsible enough to effectively use different social platforms in the internet. They often engage in useful topics and issues that will help build a better society, politics and government.

-          With the development of information technology and computers, many societies transformed into post- industrial societies. The United States, like many other developed countries, have reached the post- industrial era and undergone a post-industrial revolution. The Post- Industrial Revolution is an important development from the Industrial Revolution as economic production focused on the use and application of new information technology rather than factories.

·         How does society influence our development as persons?

-          Society influences our development as persons in various ways:

o   Norms- set of traits that society considers acceptable.

o   Folkways- less formal norms that arise from tradition and do not result in punishment when violated.

o   Mores- are also informal rules that are not written, but, when violated, result in severe punishments and social sanctions upon individual, such as social and religious exclusions.

o   Laws- more formal norms that establish and define acceptable behavior of citizens.

·         Social System

-          Social Role- actions and behaviors expected of a certain individual.

-          Social Groups/Social Classes- individuals who perform similar roles are grouped together.

-          Social Institutions- certain groups that perform vital functions in society.

-          Social Values- actions or ideals that are considered important by society.

·         How does society enable me to become a better person?

-          We have the freedom to rise above circumstances and make ourselves into something different or better.

-          Society recognizes the capability of the person to develop and provides its members with opportunities to better themselves.

-          Persons can also undertake to contribute to society through their decisions and actions.

-          Social Movement is a large-scale action done by various groups and organizations in pursuit of a common goal to bring about change. (Environmental, Youth, Gender, Clean Governance)

Lesson 5: THE HUMAN PERSON AS ORIENTED TOWARDS HIS IMPENDING DEATH

·         Death

-          permanent cessation of all vital functions: the end of life.

·         Different Views on Death

1.       Ancient View of Death

-          Most ancient people attributed death to the agency of the gods, elves, demons, or evil spirits who are jealous of human achievements and beautiful human features, or who are offended by man’s sins.

2.       Biological View of Death

-          Death is viewed as a biological event, death is the end of man considered to be a living organism.

-           

3.       Theological View

-          St. Thomas Aquinas is very clear about the nature of death. He says: "The necessity of dying for Man is partly from nature and partly from sin.

-           

4.       Philosophical View

-          Our philosophical understanding of death is given to us exclusively on the basis of the self-understanding of a living-man, who is inevitably approaching death as the ultimate event of his life. Thus, we come to an understanding of death by analyzing our actual existence in the light of the one-side experience of death and dying by the others.

·         Dualism

-          Human person is composing of two separable things: his soul and his body. When he dies the soul lives on.

-          Soul according to Plato - Plato said that the soul is like the rider of a chariot. The horses represent your body and your mind.

-          Soul according to Aristotle - Aristotle said that the soul and the body were linked, and you could not have one without the other. When we die our soul will also be gone.

·         Different Religious Views on Death

1.       Christianity- believe in afterlife. In the concept of Heaven (a paradise where good people and show faith to Jesus will go here after death Purgatory (Roman Catholics believe in a middle place between Heaven and Hell where we can pay our sins) and Hell (Hell is a place of everlasting suffering. Some Christians believe that all who haven’t accepted Jesus will burn there for eternity.

2.       Hinduism- believe in rebirth and reincarnation of soul.

3.       Shintoism – believe that the spirit goes back in the nature.

·         Evidence of Afterlife

1.       Supernatural/Psychic Evidence- Some claim that there is evidence for spiritual forces working beyond the body. This may imply the individual’s ability to live beyond death. Such evidence includes telepathy, spiritualism, and near death experiences. The latter have been subject to significant studies from neuropsychiatrists such as Peter Fenwick.

2.       Revelation/Authority- Some regard life after death as a certainty based on religious texts, faith, and teachings. Christians may see the authority of the New Testament as guaranteeing the resurrection of Jesus, for instance. Others may see a weight of historical evidence lying behind such accounts of afterlife.

3.       Rational/Logical Arguments- If we agree with the likes of Descartes (“I think therefore I am”), then we know that our internal thinking self-constitutes what is ‘really us’, rather than our physical bodies. Thought is beyond our physical existence.

·         Embodied Existence after Death

-          Resurrection- is embodied existence after death. Existence after death is physical. The same body is used.

-          Replica- claims when a person dies a ‘replica’ is created somewhere else in ‘Different space’. The replica is in all respects the same as you- exactly similar. Replica can only exist in one place at one time. Part of being human is being individual so cannot have multiple copies.

-          Rebirth/Reincarnation- Reincarnation means that the soul moves from one physical body to a different physical body after death. The body changes the soul remains the same. This means that memories from past physical existences may be remembered as the soul brings the memory with them.

·         Disembodied Existence after Death

-          Souls may go to Heaven, Purgatory or Hell.

Spirits will return as part of the nature and stays here in earth.