Terms

Triumph – A Roman military parade awarded to a victorious general, sponsored by the Senate. It took place in Rome, usually ending at the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. It was a key political and religious event, reinforcing the power of the general and Rome's military supremacy.

Porticus – A covered walkway or colonnade, often attached to temples, forums, or public buildings. Built by various patrons (e.g., Porticus of Octavia by Augustus for his sister Octavia). It provided shelter and space for markets, gatherings, and artistic display, influencing later architectural styles.

Manubiae – The spoils of war, often used by victorious generals to fund public buildings and monuments. Julius Caesar and Augustus used war spoils to construct forums and temples. This practice linked military success with civic development in Rome.

Imperial Forum – A series of grand public squares built by emperors (Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, etc.), separate from the older Roman Forum. These forums housed temples, basilicas, and triumphal monuments, serving as centers of politics and propaganda.

Fresco – A painting technique where pigments are applied to wet plaster, common in Roman wall decorations (e.g., in Pompeii and villas). Frescoes depicted myths, landscapes, and daily life, showcasing Rome's artistic achievements and influence.

Basilica – A large public building used for business, legal proceedings, and gatherings. Examples include the Basilica Aemilia and Basilica Julia. This architectural form later influenced Christian churches.

Acanthus – A plant motif used in Corinthian and Composite capitals. Its detailed, curling leaves symbolized growth and abundance, playing a significant role in Roman decorative arts.

Obelisk – A tall, narrow, four-sided monument of Egyptian origin, brought to Rome as a symbol of imperial power (e.g., the Vatican Obelisk from Egypt by Augustus). Obelisks emphasized Rome’s domination over Egypt and adorned key public spaces.

Frieze – A horizontal decorative band on buildings, often sculpted or painted. Famous examples include the Ara Pacis frieze, which depicted imperial family and religious scenes. It served as propaganda, glorifying Rome and its rulers.

Damnatio Memoriae – A practice of erasing a disgraced person’s memory from official records, statues, and inscriptions (e.g., Domitian, Geta). This reflects the political control over historical narratives in Rome.

Porphyry – A purple-red igneous rock associated with imperial status, used in sculptures and columns. It was imported from Egypt and used for emperors’ portraits.

Luna Marble – A fine white marble from Italy, used in major Roman buildings like the Pantheon and Augustus’ Ara Pacis.

Tuff – A volcanic stone, one of the earliest building materials in Rome, used for early walls and temples.

Ionic – A Greek architectural order with scroll-like volutes on its capitals, used in temples and colonnades.

Concrete – A Roman innovation mixing lime, volcanic ash, and water, enabling large domes (e.g., the Pantheon) and massive structures.

Numidian Marble – A yellow-orange marble from North Africa, used in luxury Roman decoration and imperial monuments.

Composite – A Roman architectural order combining Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus leaves, used in triumphal arches.

Pentelic Marble – A high-quality white marble from Greece, used in Roman copies of Greek sculptures.

Travertine – A durable limestone used in amphitheaters like the Colosseum.

Corinthian – The most elaborate classical order, with detailed acanthus-leaf capitals, widely used in imperial Rome.

Republic (509–27 BC) – The era of Senate-led governance before emperors.

Late Republic (133–27 BC) – A time of civil wars, leading to Augustus’ rise.

146 BC – Rome destroys Carthage and Corinth, marking Mediterranean dominance.

44 BC – Julius Caesar is assassinated, triggering civil war.

31 BC – Battle of Actium: Augustus defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

AD 14 – Augustus dies; Tiberius becomes emperor.

AD 64 – The Great Fire of Rome, leading to Nero’s urban rebuilding.

AD 69 – The "Year of the Four Emperors," ending with Vespasian’s rule.

AD 96 – Domitian is assassinated; Nerva begins a new dynasty.

AD 117 – Trajan dies; Hadrian becomes emperor, shifting to defensive strategies.

Consul – The highest elected Roman official, leading the government and military.

Trajan – Emperor (AD 98–117), expanded Rome’s borders and built the Forum of Trajan.

Octavia – Sister of Augustus, honored with the Porticus of Octavia.

Julius Caesar – Dictator assassinated in 44 BC; initiated Rome’s transition to empire.

Hadrian – Emperor (AD 117–138), known for Hadrian’s Wall and the Pantheon’s rebuilding.

M. Agrippa – Augustus’ general and architect, responsible for the original Pantheon.

Vespasian – Emperor (AD 69–79), built the Colosseum.

Alexander the Great – Macedonian conqueror who influenced Roman rulers.

Apollodorus of Damascus – Trajan’s chief architect, built his forum and column.

Augustus – Rome’s first emperor (27 BC–AD 14), initiated the Pax Romana.