Midterm Key Events
Study Guide: The Decameron
Overview:The Decameron is a collection of 100 short stories by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, written in the 14th century. It is set during the Black Death and follows a group of ten young people who escape the plague-stricken city of Florence to find refuge in the countryside, where they tell stories to entertain themselves.
Structure:
The stories are told over ten days, with each day having a specific theme.
Each of the ten characters tells a story each day, creating a total of 100 tales.
Key Themes:
Human Experience: The diversity of human behavior through love, lust, intelligence, and morality.
Social Commentary: Critiques of contemporary society, including the church and class structures.
Fleeting Nature of Life: Reflections on mortality, especially in the context of the plague.
Love and Relationships: Various forms of love, from courtly love to practical marriages.
Important Characters:
Filomena: She is one of the storytellers, known for her wit.
Dioneo: A charming and clever storyteller who often has a more humorous approach.
Pamfilo: Known for his emphasis on courtly love and idealism.
Notable Stories:
Look for the stories that deal with themes of deception, such as the tale of Madonna Francesca and the Scholar.
Stories that depict moral dilemmas and clever resolutions, highlighting human ingenuity.
Style:
Written in prose rather than poetry, it reflects the vernacular language of Boccaccio’s time.
The style varies from comical to tragic, showcasing the versatility of storytelling.
Historical Context:
Written during the Renaissance, a time of significant cultural and social changes.
The impact of the Black Death plays a critical role in the motivation behind the escape to the countryside.
Conclusion:The Decameron is a significant work that provides insight into 14th century life, human behavior, and the art of storytelling. Understanding its themes, characters, and historical context will help in analyzing its relevance and impact on literature.
Study Guide: Treaty of Tordesillas
Overview:The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement between Spain and Portugal, brokered by the Pope in 1494, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe. This treaty aimed to resolve disputes over territories explored by both nations.
Background:
As European exploration expanded in the late 15th century, Spain and Portugal emerged as leading maritime powers.
The race for new territories led to conflicts, leading to the need for formal agreements.
Key Provisions:
Imaginary Line: The treaty established an imaginary line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands.
Division of Territories:
Spain received territories to the west of the line.
Portugal received rights to territories to the east of the line, including Brazil.
Significance:
The treaty allowed Portugal to focus on Africa and Brazil, while Spain concentrated on the Americas.
This division had lasting impacts on the colonial ambitions and territorial claims of European powers.
Consequences:
The treaty did not account for indigenous populations or their rights to their land.
It sowed the seeds for future conflicts among European powers regarding exploration and colonization.
Legacy:
The Treaty of Tordesillas is often cited as a significant event in the history of colonialism and international relations.
It exemplifies the era's Eurocentrism and highlights the ways in which colonialism ignored native sovereignty.
Study Guide: The Prince
Overview:The Prince is a political treatise written by the Italian Renaissance political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli, published in 1532. It offers pragmatic advice on how a ruler can maintain power and navigate political landscapes effectively.
Key Themes:
Realism vs. Idealism: Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of pragmatic governance over idealistic or moralistic approaches.
The Role of Fortune and Virtù: Explains the interplay between fortune (luck) and virtù (skill, strength, intelligence) in political success.
The Ends Justify the Means: Discusses how achieving and maintaining power may require immoral actions for the greater good of the state.
Political Morality: Challenges the conventional morality of the time, suggesting that ethics may be secondary to political necessity.
Structure:
Divided into 26 chapters, each addressing different aspects of power and rulership.
Uses historical examples and practical anecdotes to illustrate points.
Important Concepts:
Types of Principalities: Differentiates between hereditary principalities and new principalities, highlighting the challenges of governance in each.
Military Power: Emphasizes the importance of a strong military for maintaining control and security.
Leadership Qualities: Identifies traits that effective rulers should possess, such as cunning, decisiveness, and adaptability.
Notable Quotes:
“It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.”
“The ends justify the means.”
Historical Context:
Written during the politically unstable period of the Italian Renaissance, when city-states were frequently at war.
Reflects Machiavelli’s experiences as a diplomat and political analyst in Florence.
Conclusion:The Prince remains a foundational text in political philosophy, influencing modern political thought and realpolitik. Understanding its themes and arguments provides critical insights into the nature of power and governance in both historical and contemporary contexts.
Study Guide: The 95 Theses
Overview:The 95 Theses is a document written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. It is considered a pivotal event in the Protestant Reformation.
Background:
Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian who sought to reform the Catholic Church.
The sale of indulgences was the practice of selling forgiveness for sins, which Luther condemned as corrupt.
Key Points of the 95 Theses:
Critique of Indulgences: Luther argued that purchasing indulgences undermined the seriousness of repentance and the true nature of salvation.
Authority of Scripture: Emphasized that the Bible should be the sole authority in matters of faith, rather than Church traditions and papal decrees.
Faith and Grace: Asserted that faith in Jesus Christ is the only means to salvation, not through works or indulgences.
Criticism of the Clergy: Luther criticized the clergy for exploiting the ignorance of the laypeople regarding salvation and the teachings of the Bible.
Call for Reform: Luther called for a reevaluation of Church practices and encouraged open debate on theological issues.
Impact:
The 95 Theses sparked widespread debate and were disseminated throughout Europe, thanks in part to the printing press.
Luther's actions led to the formation of new Protestant denominations and significant changes within Christianity.
The document is seen as the starting point of the Protestant Reformation, which challenged the Catholic Church's authority and practices.
Historical Context:
The Catholic Church was facing criticism for its corrupt practices and the perceived moral decline of the clergy.
The early 16th century was a time of religious upheaval, with growing calls for reform coming from various quarters.
Conclusion:The 95 Theses played a crucial role in challenging the Catholic Church and shaping the course of Western Christianity. Understanding Luther's arguments and the context in which they were presented is essential for grasping the significance of the Reformation.
Study Guide: The Conquest of the Aztec Empire
Overview:The conquest of the Aztec Empire was a pivotal event in the early 16th century, leading to the fall of one of the most powerful civilizations in Mesoamerica and the establishment of Spanish rule in Mexico.
Key Figures:
Hernán Cortés: The Spanish conquistador who led the expedition against the Aztec Empire.
Montezuma II: The last Aztec emperor, who ruled during the conquest and faced the Spanish invasion.
La Malinche (Malintzin): An indigenous woman who served as an interpreter and advisor to Cortés, playing a crucial role in the conquest.
Background:
The Aztec Empire was at its height, with a complex society, a powerful military, and expansive territory in present-day Mexico.
Spanish exploration began in the Caribbean, with Cortés seeking wealth and resources.
Key Events:
Arrival of Cortés (1519): Cortés landed on the Mexican coast and made alliances with local tribes, including the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans, who were enemies of the Aztecs.
March to Tenochtitlán: Cortés and his allies made their way to the Aztec capital, gaining support from indigenous groups opposed to Aztec rule.
Encounter with Montezuma II: Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlán and initially received a warm welcome, but tensions quickly escalated.
The Siege of Tenochtitlán (1521): After a series of conflicts, Cortés laid siege to the city, leading to starvation and disease among the Aztecs.
Fall of Tenochtitlán: The city fell on August 13, 1521, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.
Factors Leading to Success:
Alliances with Indigenous Peoples: Cortés formed alliances with various tribes who resented Aztec control, bolstering his forces.
Technological Advantages: The Spanish had superior weaponry, including firearms and steel swords, as well as horses, which were new to the indigenous peoples.
Disease: European diseases such as smallpox decimated the Aztec population, weakening their ability to resist the conquest.
Consequences:
Establishment of Spanish colonial rule in Mexico and the conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity.
The exploitation of the region's resources, particularly silver and gold, which fueled Spanish wealth.
The decline of indigenous cultures and the significant loss of life due to warfare and disease.
Conclusion:The conquest of the Aztec Empire represents a significant moment in the history of colonialism in the Americas, showcasing the clash of civilizations and the profound impacts of European expansion on indigenous societies.
Study Guide: Peace of Augsburg
Overview:The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty signed in 1555 that ended religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. It established a key principle of coexistence and sought to bring stability to a region affected by the Reformation.
Background:
The Protestant Reformation had led to significant tensions and conflicts within the Holy Roman Empire, particularly between the followers of Martin Luther and the Catholic Church.
The initial conflict escalated with the formation of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant princes against the Catholic Emperor Charles V.
Key Provisions:
Cuius regio, eius religio: This principle established that the ruler of a territory could determine its religion (either Catholicism or Lutheranism).
Religious Toleration: It granted legal recognition and protection to the Lutheran faith within the empire, allowing Lutheran subjects the freedom to practice their religion.
Legal Status: The treaty legally recognized the division of Christianity in the empire and limited future conflicts over religion.
Significance:
Marked the first formal acknowledgment of Lutheranism as a legitimate faith within the Holy Roman Empire.
Set a precedent for later treaties and discussions about religious tolerance and coexistence in Europe.
Helped to stabilize the region temporarily by reducing tensions between the Catholic and Protestant states.
Consequences:
While it provided temporary peace, it did not resolve all tensions; conflicts between different Protestant sects and Catholics persisted.
The Peace of Augsburg ultimately laid the groundwork for future religious conflicts, including the Thirty Years' War.
Legacy:
The Peace of Augsburg is considered a crucial turning point in the history of religious tolerance and the politics of the Reformation.
It exemplified the struggle between authority and freedom of conscience that would continue to shape European politics for centuries.
Conclusion:The Peace of Augsburg was a landmark treaty that showcased the complexities of religious and political life within the Holy Roman Empire, reflecting the challenges of a divided Christendom and the attempts to create peace in a fractured society.
Study Guide: Edict of Nantes
Overview:The Edict of Nantes was a decree issued in 1598 by King Henry IV of France that granted significant rights and protections to the Huguenots (French Protestants) while also promoting national unity in France. This edict aimed to end the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in the late 16th century.
Background:
France was embroiled in a series of civil wars known as the French Wars of Religion, primarily fought between Catholics and Huguenots from 1562 to 1598.
King Henry IV, who was originally a Huguenot, converted to Catholicism but sought to find a resolution that would promote peace and stability in France.
Key Provisions:
Religious Freedom: The Edict allowed Huguenots to practice their religion freely in designated towns and cities.
Civil Rights: Huguenots were granted civil rights, including the right to hold public office and the right to assemble.
Fortified Towns: The Edict authorized certain towns to be maintained as Huguenot strongholds (e.g., La Rochelle) to ensure their protection against Catholic forces.
Judicial rights: Huguenots could establish their own courts to resolve disputes in their communities.
Significance:
The Edict of Nantes marked a significant step towards religious tolerance in France and helped to reduce tensions between Catholics and Protestants.
It solidified Henry IV's rule and contributed to the centralization of the French state.
Consequences:
The Edict helped to bring about relative peace and stability in France for several decades.
However, it remained a source of contention, as Catholic extremists opposed its provisions.
The Edict was eventually revoked in 1685 by King Louis XIV, leading to renewed persecution of Huguenots and significant emigration of Protestants from France.
Legacy:
The Edict of Nantes is historically significant as an early example of legal religious tolerance.
It has been referenced in discussions of civil rights and religious freedom in modern contexts.
Conclusion:The Edict of Nantes was a landmark decree that sought to provide a peaceful resolution to the religious conflicts in France, laying the groundwork for future acceptance of religious diversity within the country.
Study Guide: Execution of Charles I
Overview:The execution of Charles I of England on January 30, 1649, marked a pivotal moment in British history, signifying the climax of a power struggle between the monarchy and Parliament during the English Civil War.
Background:
Charles I ascended to the throne in 1625 and ruled based on the belief in the divine right of kings.
Conflicts with Parliament over issues such as taxation, religion, and governance led to escalating tensions.
The English Civil War broke out in 1642 between Royalists (supporters of the king) and Parliamentarians (supporters of parliamentary authority).
Key Events Leading to the Execution:
Defeat in the Civil War: The Parliamentary forces, led by figures such as Oliver Cromwell, defeated the Royalists, leading to the capture of Charles in 1646.
Trial for Treason: In 1648, Charles was put on trial by a specially convened court for treason against the people of England, challenging the authority of Parliament.
Refusal to Admit Jurisdiction: Charles famously refused to recognize the court’s legitimacy, arguing that a king could not be tried by his subjects.
Sentencing: Despite his objections, the court found him guilty of treason, and on January 27, 1649, he was sentenced to death.
Execution:
Charles was executed by beheading outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall, London.
His last words emphasized the importance of maintaining the monarchy.
Significance:
The execution of Charles I led to the temporary abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell.
It set a precedent for the limits of royal power and the authority of Parliament.
Consequences:
The execution intensified divisions within England, leading to further conflicts and changes in governance.
The monarchy was restored in 1660, but the event profoundly impacted the relationship between the monarchy and Parliament.
Legacy:
Charles I’s execution is often viewed as a martyrdom by royalists and a significant assertion of parliamentary sovereignty.
It remains a key moment in discussions of democracy, governance, and the rule of law in Britain.
Conclusion:The execution of Charles I was a landmark event that reshaped England’s political landscape, symbolizing the struggle for power between the monarchy and the institution of Parliament, with lasting implications for the future of British governance.
Study Guide: Peace of Westphalia
Overview:The Peace of Westphalia refers to a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe, as well as the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. It marked a turning point in European history, establishing a new framework for international relations and state sovereignty.
Background:
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a devastating conflict involving many European powers and primarily fought in Central Europe.
The war had complex causes, including political power struggles, religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants, and territorial disputes.
Key Provisions:
Sovereignty of States: Recognition of the principle of state sovereignty, allowing states to govern themselves without external interference.
Religious Tolerance: The treaties allowed for greater religious tolerance, particularly between Catholics and Protestants, establishing a legal framework for coexistence.
Territorial Changes: Various territorial adjustments were made, including the recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic from Spain and the ceding of territory to France and Sweden.
Balance of Power: Established a balance of power principle to prevent any single state from becoming too dominant in Europe.
Significance:
The Peace of Westphalia is often credited with laying the foundation for the modern nation-state system.
It marked the decline of the influence of religious authority in political matters, shifting the focus to state-based politics.
The treaties established a framework for diplomacy and international law that is still relevant today.
Consequences:
The Peace of Westphalia led to a significant change in the political landscape of Europe, impacting alliances, conflicts, and territorial borders.
It set a precedent for future peace negotiations and treaties in international relations.
Legacy:
The Peace of Westphalia is viewed as a crucial event in the history of Western political thought.
It is often cited in discussions regarding international relations, national sovereignty, and the concept of a nation-state.
Conclusion:The Peace of Westphalia was a landmark event that ended a period of brutal conflict in Europe, reshaping the political order and establishing principles that continue to guide international relations to this day.
Study Guide: The Glorious Revolution
Overview:The Glorious Revolution was a pivotal event that took place in England between 1688 and 1689, resulting in the overthrow of King James II and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne. This revolution is often regarded as a significant turning point in British constitutional history and the establishment of parliamentary sovereignty.
Background:
Tensions grew in England due to King James II's attempts to promote Catholicism in a predominantly Protestant nation.
His policies of religious tolerance for Catholics led to widespread unrest and fears of a Catholic monarchy.
The discontent was further exacerbated by James II's autocratic style and disregard for Parliament.
Key Events:
Invitation from Parliament: In June 1688, a group of seven prominent nobles invited William of Orange, a Protestant, to invade England and claim the throne.
William's Landing: William landed in England in November 1688 with a substantial force, and his arrival was met with little resistance.
Flight of James II: As William's forces advanced, James II fled to France, effectively abdicating the throne.
Convention Parliament: In early 1689, a Convention Parliament convened to determine the future monarchy.
Declaration of Rights: Parliament offered the throne to William and Mary, on the condition that they accept the Declaration of Rights, which established certain parliamentary limits on royal authority.
Key Provisions:
Constitutional Monarchy: The Glorious Revolution resulted in the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England.
Bill of Rights (1689): Affirmed rights such as the right to bear arms for self-defense, free elections, and the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment.
Parliamentary Sovereignty: Established the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy, limiting the powers of the king and ensuring government by consent.
Significance:
Marked the transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy in England.
Laid the groundwork for the development of modern democracy and the parliamentary system.
Inspired other political revolutions and movements advocating for democratic reforms around the world.
Consequences:
Increased Protestant political power and the decline of Catholic influence in England.
Solidified William and Mary’s rule and initiated the long-term stability of the monarchy in relation to Parliament.
Legacy:
The Glorious Revolution is often seen as a ‘bloodless’ revolution due to the minimal violence involved.
Influenced Enlightenment thinkers and contributed to the development of liberal political thought.
It remains a pivotal moment in the history of British governance and its constitutional framework.
Conclusion:The Glorious Revolution was a landmark event that fundamentally changed the nature of monarchy in England, establishing principles of governance that influenced both British and global political developments for centuries.
Study Guide: Storming of the Bastille
Overview:The Storming of the Bastille occurred on July 14, 1789, and is considered a significant event in the French Revolution. It marked the uprising of the people against the monarchy's oppression and the demand for freedom and reform in France.
Background:
The Bastille was a fortress and prison in Paris, symbolizing royal authority and authoritarianism.
By 1789, France was in economic crisis, and King Louis XVI's government was perceived as corrupt and ineffective. Unrest was growing due to high taxes, food shortages, and Enlightenment ideas promoting liberty and equality.
Key Events:
Tensions Escalate:
As discontent spread, Parisians felt the need to acquire weapons to defend themselves against potential royalist repression.
The Gathering of Forces:
On July 11, 1789, King Louis XVI dismissed popular finance minister Jacques Necker, provoking anger among many citizens.
Supporters of Necker and revolutionaries began to mobilize, fearing royal reprisals.
March to the Bastille:
On July 14, a large crowd gathered and marched to the Bastille, seeking arms stored there.
The crowd demanded entry and confronted the soldiers guarding the fortress, leading to tensions and violence.
Storming the Bastille:
After negotiations failed, the crowd broke through the gates, successfully storming the Bastille.
Fighting ensued, resulting in the deaths of several defenders and attackers.
The Bastille was captured, and the governor of the Bastille, Bernard-René de Launay, was killed by the mob.
Significance:
The storming of the Bastille is often dubbed the symbolic beginning of the French Revolution, representing the fall of tyrannical rule.
It galvanized the revolutionaries and signaled the end of absolute monarchy in France.
The event inspired uprisings across France and contributed to the eventual establishment of the First French Republic.
Consequences:
The storming led to the formation of the National Assembly, which began drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
It caused King Louis XVI to lose control over Paris, marking the shift of power to the revolutionary forces.
Legacy:
July 14 is celebrated as Bastille Day, a national holiday in France, symbolizing freedom and the people's uprising against oppression.
The event has become a global symbol of the fight against tyranny and the quest for liberty.
Conclusion:The Storming of the Bastille was a turning point in the French Revolution, laying the foundations for modern democracy in France and inspiring revolutionary movements worldwide.
Study Guide: Reign of Terror
Overview:The Reign of Terror was a period during the French Revolution from September 1793 to July 1794 marked by extreme political violence and mass executions. It was characterized by the revolutionary government's determination to eliminate perceived enemies of the revolution.
Background:
Following the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, France faced economic turmoil, civil unrest, and a war with various European powers.
The revolutionary government, led by the Jacobins and figures like Maximilien Robespierre, sought to consolidate power and eliminate counter-revolutionaries.
Key Features:
Committee of Public Safety:
Established in April 1793, this governing body held significant power and was responsible for overseeing the government during the crisis.
Led by Robespierre, it aimed to protect the revolution from its enemies.
Mass Executions:
The use of the guillotine became synonymous with the Reign of Terror.
Thousands were executed; estimates suggest that 16,000 to 40,000 people were killed, including political leaders, nobles, and perceived enemies of the revolution.
Law of Suspects (September 1793):
This law expanded the definition of enemies of the revolution, allowing for the arrest of anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activities.
Many innocents were swept up in the wave of paranoia and suspicion.
De-Christianization Campaign:
Efforts were made to remove religious influence from public life, leading to the closure of churches and the persecution of clergy.
The cult of the Supreme Being was introduced as a state-sponsored religion.
Significance:
The Reign of Terror had a profound impact on French society and the revolution itself, reinforcing the notion that the revolution was willing to resort to violence to achieve its aims.
It exposed the tensions and radicalization within the revolutionary government.
End of the Reign of Terror:
The period ended with the fall of Robespierre, who was arrested and executed in July 1794, as many in the government feared that they would be next on his enemies’ list.
The Thermidorian Reaction followed, leading to a moderation of policies and a gradual return to stability.
Legacy:
The Reign of Terror is often seen as a cautionary tale about the excesses of revolutionary fervor and the dangers of political extremism.
It influenced subsequent revolutionary movements around the world in their approach to dealing with dissent.
Conclusion:The Reign of Terror remains a critical, controversial, and debated period in French history, highlighting the complexities of revolutionary change and the consequences of radical political action.