Greece, Byzantium, and the Ottoman Empire: Geography, Religion, Economy, and Society
Geography of Greece: Regions, relief, and global position
Greece is described with a map showing regions: Macedonia, Thrace, Epirus (spelled here as Ipiros), Thessaly, Central Greece, Attica (Athens), the Peloponnese, Crete, Evia, the Northern Aegean Islands, the Cycladic Islands, and the Dodecanese Islands. The Dodecanese were the last portion of the Greek state to be inducted in 1947, after World War II, transferred from Italy.
Relief map interpretation: brown = mountainous terrain; green = plains and valleys. Key takeaway: the land is extremely mountainous, with over >70\% of the land being mountainous and less than <30\% arable. This geography limits agriculture and shapes livelihoods.
Geographic position: Greece sits near the equator on a global view, a factor that, together with mountains and seas, influences living patterns, climate, and economic activities.
Implications for Greek life: mountains reduce arable land, islands and extensive coastline promote seafaring and trade, and proximity to sea routes drives economic and cultural connections across the Mediterranean.
Geography and food security: Diet, agriculture, and trade in the Greek context
What Greeks eat given limited cultivable land:
Wheat and corn are historically important; corn becomes notable as a 17th-century development, as do tomatoes and potatoes as later introductions.
Meat primarily comes from goats and sheep due to mountainous terrain; cows favor flat, grassy areas (contrast with dairy abundance in flat, pasture-rich regions like Denmark or Holland).
Seafood forms a significant portion of the diet because of extensive sea access and island geography.
The geography-driven economy: limited arable land pushes reliance on trade and seafaring; food imports become more feasible in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Islands and seafaring: island geography fosters seafaring traditions; early Greeks become skilled traders and navigators, leading to the use of boats for goods, people, and ideas.
Economic note: the historical presence of insurance for seafaring is highlighted by referencing the first known seafaring insurance tablet from Greece, illustrating early financial instruments linked to maritime activity.
Religion in the Balkans: Paganism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and coexistence
Antiquity and religion: Greek religion was pagan (mythology) before Christianity.
Judaism: earliest European Jewish settlement was in Rhodes; a preexisting Jewish community existed in the region.
Christianity: Christianity spreads through the Greek lands (e.g., apostles like Saint Peter visiting Thessalonica and Corinth). As paganism recedes, Christian monuments and spaces appear (e.g., the Parthenon later turned into a Christian shrine).
Islam: arrives with the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans; Islam is a latecomer relative to Christianity and Judaism but becomes a major force from the 15th century onward.
Coexistence: by the 15th century three faiths—Islam, Judaism, and Christianity—coexist in the Balkans, with lasting legacies in communities that persist into the modern era.
Geography and faith: the presence of Muslims in Greece and the Balkans is tied to Ottoman settlement and the millet system, shaping religious and social landscapes for centuries.
Antiquity and the Hellenic world: City-states, identity, and the Olympic criterion
No modern Greek state in antiquity; Greece consisted of patchworks of Greek communities and city-states (e.g., Athens, Sparta) with shifting alliances and rivalries (e.g., the Peloponnesian Wars).
Unifying factors for Hellenes in antiquity: shared faith in mythological gods and participation in the Olympic Games.
Olympic inclusion: participation in the Olympic Games was primarily for fellow Greeks; debated whether Philip II of Macedon (and his Macedonian peers) could claim Greek identity despite Greek language and Olympic allegiance. This raises questions about what constitutes being “Greek.”
Alexander the Great: his empire (the Alexandrian Empire) expands from Greece to India and later fragments into six components after his death.
Roman era: the Greek peoples become part of the Roman Empire; ethnically Hellenes but increasingly identify as Romae (citizens of the Roman Empire). This is a civic identity that coexists with ethnic/linguistic Greek identity.
Constantine and Byzantium: the emperor Constantine I founds a new capital in Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), establishing a split of the Roman Empire into East and West.
The Byzantine Empire: Constantinople, theocracy, and trade
Byzantium emerges as the eastern Roman Empire with Constantinople as its capital; it is a theocracy: religion and politics are deeply intertwined, with the emperor closely linked to church leadership.
The religious symbol and governance: the two-headed eagle (often used by the Orthodox Church) represents religious-political authority.
The church and state: the Orthodox Church operates with an ecumenical patriarch and several patriarchs, but no single pope like in Rome; church leadership has significant influence but different structures than the Western Church.
Geography and economy: Byzantium holds a privileged position linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean; it sits at the economic crossroads for spice trades and other East-West commercial routes, securing wealth through trade.
Military power and finances: money from trade supports a large army; taxation and economic surplus enable expansion and maintenance of power.
External pressures: over time, the empire faces Mongol incursions, Slavic movements, and other invasions from the north and east, challenging its stability.
The Crusades: papal campaigns to reclaim Jerusalem lead to repeated Crusades; initially beneficial, later Crusades (notably the Fourth Crusade) undermine Byzantium by sacking Constantinople (1204).
Consequences of the Fourth Crusade: the sacking weakens Byzantium, paving the way for its gradual decline while Western Europe increases its own power and influence in the Mediterranean.
The Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople (and its aftermath)
The Fourth Crusade (1204) diverts to Constantinople instead of the Middle East; it results in prolonged devastation of the Byzantine capital and fragmentation of the empire.
The long-term decline after 1204: economic weakness, internal political rivalries, and external pressures contribute to a shrinking empire.
1453: The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks marks a decisive end to the Byzantine Empire; the last emperor, Constantine XI, dies defending the city.
Mehmet II (Mehmed the Conqueror) leads the siege of Constantinople and the transformation of the city into Istanbul, symbolizing the Ottoman expansion into Europe.
Hagia Sophia: Mehmet II converts Aya Sophia (Hagia Sophia) from a Christian cathedral into a mosque; later, it becomes a museum under Atatürk, and in 2020 it was controversially reconverted into a mosque, illustrating the layered religious and cultural heritage in the region.
The siege and its symbolism: the fall is remembered in Greek and Balkan memory as a watershed moment, with mythic and cultural resonance about a lost city and a future reconquest.
Cultural memory: the siege reinforces a sense of historic grievance and a longing for a return of Constantinople to Greek/Orthodox control.
The Ottoman Empire: origins, expansion, and multi-ethnic rule
Origins of the Ottomans: from nomadic Turkish horsemen (Seljuk Turks) in Central Asia; they migrate westward, convert to Islam, and form a political entity after Osman's leadership in Nicaea (Nicea).
Osman’s legacy: the empire is named for Osman (Othman); the Ottoman state begins as a conqueror of key Islamic holy sites, acquiring a caliphal dimension once Mecca and Medina are captured.
Territorial expansion: from their base in Anatolia, the Ottomans advance into Europe, capturing Adrianople (Edirne) in 1361 and Thessaloniki in 1421.
Thessaloniki: a pivotal city due to its strategic location and gateway status to the Balkans and Danube routes; its population is significantly enriched by Sephardic Jews expelled from Iberia who settle there, contributing to its economic and cultural life.
The banner and memory of conquest: the Ottomans’ expansion creates a vast empire spanning Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, forming multiple sea routes and controlling key trade corridors.
Acquisitions map: the expansion includes areas around Nicaea (Othman’s origin), through the brown/orange/yellow shading on the map to Constantinople, and further into the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa; this demonstrates the empire’s eastward and southward reach and its dominance of trade networks.
Economic backbone: trade is central to Ottoman prosperity, with routes connecting Europe, the Middle East, and Africa.
The problem of new sea routes: the Cape of Good Hope and the eventual circumnavigation of Africa and direct routes to the Far East challenge Ottoman trade and influence, prompting shifts in policy and strategy.
Ottoman administration, law, and religious organization (the millet system)
Central leadership: the Sultan is the political head; desis/diwans (divan) advise the sultan; the Ulema (religious scholars) ensure laws align with the Quran; all law and regulation are vetted by the Ulema.
Early exclusion from administration: until about the 17th century, Muslims exclusively participate in political administration; non-Muslims are generally barred from high political roles.
Economic system: a merchant-based and guild-driven economy with a broad range of goods (linen, Egyptian cotton, furs, dried fish from the Black Sea, timber, coffee, silk, wool, etc.).
Medieval guilds: crafts and trades operate within closed guild structures; apprentices advance to masters, and entry is restricted, maintaining quality but limiting innovation.
Industrial challenge: industrialization in Western Europe disrupts traditional Ottoman production, as machines enable faster, cheaper production elsewhere; the Ottomans respond with inward-looking, protectionist policies and a shift toward limiting foreign competition.
Millets: the empire is organized around millets, semi-autonomous religious communities with their own leadership and internal governance. Major millets include Orthodox Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
Millet I Bashi: the leader of the Orthodox millet, responsible for tax collection from his millet to send to the sultan and for maintaining loyalty and peace within his community. Guilds and courts within each millet operate semi-autonomously; disputes within a millet are handled in millet courts rather than Ottoman courts.
Coexistence and hierarchy: Muslims hold political supremacy; non-Muslims are protected under the Quran but do not surpass Muslims in legal or political status; this includes taxation and social regulations (e.g., non-Muslims paying higher taxes; restrictions on public roles and attire).
Social rules and symbolism: certain costumes and colors symbolize status (e.g., yellow for Muslims in some periods); non-Muslims face socially codified limitations (e.g., ride restrictions, dress codes).
Conversion dynamics: some Greeks convert to Islam due to tax incentives or social/political advantages, though many maintain Orthodox Christianity; conversion alters social status and loyalty dynamics within the millet system.
Society under Ottoman rule: culture, education, and political life
Loss of Byzantine aristocracy: the Ottoman conquest leads to the elimination or expulsion of much of the Byzantine aristocracy; Greek elites are killed, enslaved, or banished, collapsing the traditional centers of high culture, arts, and education.
Cultural shift: without aristocratic patrons, high culture declines in the Ottoman era; instead, there is a rise of folk culture, oral storytelling, and community-based arts due to the lack of funding for major artistic projects.
Education and literacy: literacy declines among Greeks and within local churches; schools become less common, reducing formal education access.
Political disenfranchisement: minority communities face disenfranchisement and limited political participation; taxes on non-Muslims increase and are economically burdensome.
Economic distribution: in areas like the Peloponnese, 10% of the population owns 90% of the land, while 90% of the population is taxed heavily despite owning little land; this highlights structural economic inequality.
Legal discrimination: non-Muslims must rely on Muslim testimony to equal one Muslim testimony in many cases; non-Muslims face limited legal recourse in Ottoman courts for disputes with Muslims.
Social discrimination: non-Muslims face restrictions like not being allowed to ride horses; color-coded clothing and other marks signaled social hierarchy.
Periodization, decline, and the forces shaping the Ottoman end
Periodization:
Rise and establishment: from the 13th century through the mid-16th century, the Ottoman state expands and consolidates power.
Apex: under Suleiman the Magnificent (reign roughly 1520–1566), the empire reaches its greatest territorial extent and military power.
Decline: from about 1566 to 1821, the empire begins to decline due to internal and external pressures.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566): the zenith of the Ottoman Empire; a renowned lawgiver who expanded empire territory and central authority.
Causes of decline (interlinked):
Leadership and administration: reliance on capable viziers declined; some rulers failed to provide strong, competent leadership.
Janissaries and governance: the Janissaries, once elite and loyal soldiers, gradually shift from expansionary fighting to internal policing and tax collection, increasingly extracting revenue and becoming a burden on military effectiveness.
Economic strain: industrialization in Europe undermines the Ottoman economy; protectionist policies and tax burdens strain the population and reduce state revenue.
Technological and organizational lag: failure to modernize production and administration reduces efficiency and competitiveness.
Intellectual and ideological challenges: Enlightenment ideas about equality, self-rule, and governance undermine multi-ethnic empires and provoke nationalist movements within various subject populations.
The Greek case within the Empire: Greek elites (Byzantine aristocracy) decline; Greek language, culture, and Orthodoxy lose state backing; many Greeks become second-class citizens; education and arts in Greek communities decline, with a shift toward folk culture.
The turning point: as Enlightenment ideas circulate and Napoleonic-era reforms rise, Greek aspirations for independence intensify, setting the stage for the Greek War of Independence (begins in the early 19th century and continues into the next lecture).
Case studies and illustrative incidents linked to memory and politics
Cyprus and the 1974 invasion: Cyprus, a Greek-majority island, was invaded by Turkey in 1974, remaining divided; the island’s division has persisted as a symbol of Greek-Turkish tensions.
The 1991 Brussels soccer gambit and the Cyprus incident: EU officials proposed using a Greek/Cypriot soccer match as a means to promote reconciliation. A provocative banner on the Turkish side—“Istanbul since 1453” and a message implying “he kills for you”—triggered a violent confrontation between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, illustrating how historical memory can inflame contemporary tensions.
Sarajevo and the August 1914 connection: Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in Sarajevo is linked to a Serbian national memory dating to a defeat by the Ottoman Empire centuries earlier; this event helped ignite World War I, illustrating how historical memory can shape modern geopolitics.
The Ottoman military and political institutions: Janissaries and governance dynamics
Janissaries: elite infantry corps, originally kept from marriage to ensure loyalty to the sultan; over time they gain domestic policing and tax-collection roles, diminishing their battlefield effectiveness and contributing to the empire’s military weakness.
Sultanic governance: sultans increasingly rely on viziers and regional powers; internal factionalism and provincial autonomy threaten centralized authority.
Economic policy in decline: late-era protectionist strategies and the failure to adapt to industrial-era competition erode imperial finances.
The role of Enlightenment ideas: modern political philosophy about equality and self-rule challenges the legitimacy of a multi-ethnic empire; these ideas contribute to rising nationalist movements within the empire’s diverse populations.
Connections to larger themes and real-world relevance
Geography as destiny: Greece’s mountainous terrain, island geography, and location along major sea routes shape its economic, social, and political history—from ancient seafaring to Ottoman rule and beyond.
Religion as a unifying and dividing force: the interplay of paganism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam creates a layered religious map with lasting cultural influence on laws, customs, and identities.
Continuity and rupture across eras: from classical Hellenic identity through Roman/Byzantine and Ottoman periods, shared language, religion, and memory persist even as political structures change dramatically.
The impact of empire-on-empires: the fall of Constantinople reshapes Europe and the Mediterranean; Ottoman governance reconfigures Balkans’ demographics and cultures, influencing modern national borders and conflicts.
Historical memory in contemporary politics: events like the Cypriot soccer incident and the memory of Constantinople/Constantinople’retake continue to influence contemporary Greek-Turkish relations and regional politics.
Notes on dates and key figures (quick reference)
Dodecanese Islands incorporated into the Greek state in 1947.
Adrianople (Edirne) captured in 1361 by the Ottomans.
Thessaloniki captured in 1421 by the Ottomans; Sephardic Jewish population later settles there.
Conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453 by Mehmed II; end of the Byzantine Empire.
Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 (often cited as a major turning point in medieval history).
Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign: 1520–1566; empire at its height during this period.
Start of Greek War of Independence: early 19th century; leads into the next lecture’s discussion.
Major religious centers and symbols: Hagia Sophia (Aya Sofia) converted to a mosque in 1453, later a museum, and then reconverted to a mosque in 2020 by Turkey’s government.
Quick reference synthesis
Geography dictates economy and livelihoods: mountains limit farming; seas promote trade and seafaring.
The Greek historical arc moves from ancient city-states and Olympic inclusion to a unified Hellenic identity under later empires, culminating in the Byzantine and Ottoman eras.
The Byzantine Empire’s fall reshapes European history and illustrates the power of trade, religious authority, and military organization.
The Ottoman Empire’s multi-ethnic, millet-based governance system sustains a large empire for centuries, but internal dynamics (millet hierarchy, Janissaries, tax pressures) and external competition contribute to its long-term decline.
The Greek experience under Ottoman rule includes loss of aristocratic power, cultural shifts, social and legal inequalities, and eventual nationalist awakenings that lead to independence movements in the 19th century.
Next steps for study
Review the chronology from ancient Greece through the Byzantine era to the Ottoman period, focusing on how geography and religion interact with political power.
Examine the millet system in detail: mechanisms of tax collection, legal jurisdiction, and social mobility for different millets.
Understand the role of major events (1204 sack of Constantinople, 1453 Fall of Constantinople, 1520–1566 Suleiman era) and their long-term implications for Southeast Europe and the Mediterranean.
Explore the connections between memory, symbolism, and modern politics (e.g., Cyprus, Constantinople/Istanbul, and contemporary Greek-Turkish relations).
This set of notes compiles the key ideas, dates, and dynamics discussed in the transcript, organized to mirror the lecture’s structure while providing a comprehensive study aid for exam preparation.