Unit 5 - Revolutions (1750-1900)

• Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1750 to 1900.

  • The development of industrial capitalism led to increased standards of living for some, and to continued improvement in manufacturing methods that increased the availability, affordability, and variety of consumer goods.

    • Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph made exploration, development, and communication possible in interior regions globally, which led to increased trade and migration.

  • The 18th century marked the beginning of an intense period of revolution and rebellion against existing governments, leading to the establishment of new nation-states around the world.

    • Enlightenment philosophies applied new ways of understanding and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships; they also reexamined the role that religion played in public life and emphasized the importance of reason. Philosophers developed new political ideas about the individual, natural rights, and the social contract.

    • The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded revolutions and rebellions against existing governments.

    • Nationalism also became a major force shaping the historical development of states and empires

The Enlightenment

• Scientific Revolution

1. Science in 1500s

   1. Based on ancient and medieval principles

   2. European views of the universe based on ideas of Aristotle

   3. Central idea was of a static earth at the center of the universe (The Geocentric Universe)

   4. 10 crystal spheres moved around the earth

   5. Biology before 1600

      1. The 4 humors were used to explain the causes of everything about human nature.

      2. Bloodletting was a common practice

2. Causes of the Scientific Revolution

   1. Medieval universities provided framework for new view

   2. Renaissance stimulated science with rediscovery of ancient math

   3. More advanced tools (such as telescopes) improved the scientific method

   4. Empirical, experimental research became more common

3. The Copernican Hypothesis

   1. Developed by Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

   2. Overturned the medieval view of the universe

   3. Stated that the earth revolved around the sun

   4. Heliocentric view was in opposition to the views of both Catholic and Protestant churches

4. Allies of Copernicus

   1. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

      1. Brahe built an observatory and collected data

      2. He provided evidence that supported the heliocentric theory

   2. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

      1. Kepler’s calculations also supported heliocentrism

      2. Discovered that the planets moved in elliptical orbits

   3. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

      1. Confirmed Copernicus’ theory through telescope observations

      2. Discovery of moon craters and sunspots contradict classical view of “heavenly bodies”

      3. Catholic Church tried and convicted Galileo of heresy

5. Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

   1. Integrated astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo

   2. Formulated mathematical principles to explain motion

   3. The core of his theory was the universal law of gravitation

6. Results of Scientific Revolution

   1. Creation of international scientific community

   2. Development of scientific method

   3. Little impact on the masses until the 18th century

• Absolutism

1. Absolutism

   1. Absolutism is a system of government where the monarch (usually a hereditary ruler) has all of the power

   2. Key Ideas of Absolutism

      1. Divine Right: the concept that the ruler’s power comes from God

      2. Everyone benefits from an all-powerful ruler

2. Aspects of Absolute Rule

   1. Absolute rulers fought frequent wars to accumulate more power.

      1. France had the largest army in Europe (400,000) under Louis XIV

      2. War of Spanish Succession - an attempt to unite France and Spain under one ruler.

   2. Absolute rulers used the nobility to maintain control

      1. Louis XIV had 10,000 nobles living at versailles (a privilege as well)

      2. Akbar used the mansabdar system, using nobles to collect taxes

   3. Religion

      1. Akbar the Great

         1. He was a Muslim, but was tolerant of other religions

         2. He eliminated the jizya, the special tax paid by all non-Muslims

         3. He created the “Divine Faith”, combining beliefs of several religions

      2. Louis XIV

         1. He was a Catholic and was intolerant, particularly of French Protestants

         2. Over 200,000 Protestants left France during his reign

• Versailles is an example of what we call monumental architecture, which is another way rulers show their power.

• Philosophes of the Enlightenment

1. John Locke (1632-1704)

   1. Born in England

   2. Wrote “Two Treatises on Government” (1689)

   3. Rejected “divine right”

   4. Believed in natural rights

   5. Only rulers who respect the rights of the people deserve to stay in power

2. Voltaire (1694-1778)

   1. Born in France

   2. Wrote “Candide” (1759)

   3. Did not believe in democracy or equality

   4. Believed an enlightened monarch was best

   5. Believed in equality before the law

3. Rousseau (1712-1778)

   1. Born in Switzerland

   2. Wrote “The Social Contract” (1762)

   3. Believed that people were born good

   4. Believed in government by the “general will”

4. Montesquieu (1689-1755)

   1. Born in France

   2. Wrote “On the Spirit of the Laws” (1748)

   3. Used scientific method to study a variety of governments

   4. Believed in separation of powers

5. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

   1. Born in England

   2. Wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” (1792)

   3. Believed that since women possessed reason, they were equal to men

   4. Believed that women were entitled to an education

6. Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

   1. Born in France

   2. Wrote the “Encyclopedia” or “Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Trades” (1751)

   3. Believed in spreading knowledge to challenge traditional ways

   4. Believed in religious toleration

Nationalism and Revolutions (1750-1900)

• English Revolution

1. The Magna Carta (1215)

   1. Established The Rights of Englishmen:

      1. Right to trial by jury

      2. Right to face your accuser in court 

      3. Right to a speedy trial

   2. No taxation without the consent of Parliament (nobility)

2. The Rise of the English Bourgeoisie

   1. Rise of commercial and merchant capitalism

   2. Granted representation in the English Parliament (House of Commons)

   3. Conflicts between Parliament and the king (over taxation, religion) increased importance

3. Origins of the English Civil War

   1. Conflict over divine right of kings

   2. Conflict between Anglican kings and Puritans

   3. Conflict between Kings and Parliament

   4. Charles I attempts to arrest his opponents in Parliament

4. The Two Sides

   1. Royalist (“Cavaliers”): mostly nobles, loyal to Anglican Church and King

   2. Parliamentarians (“Roundheads”): Small landholders, middle class, mostly puritans

5. English Civil War

   1. The Capture of Charles I

      1. Roundheads disagreed on his fate

      2. Moderates bring him back with unlimited power

      3. Radicals: execute him and form a republic

   2. Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658)

      1. Roundhead leader kicks out moderates

      2. Parliament votes to end monarchy, abolish House of Lords

      3. Charles I executed

6. The English Republic (1649-1655)

   1. With the execution of Charles I, England becomes a republic

   2. Oliver Cromwell (Roundhead leader) kicks out moderates

   3. Parliament votes to end monarchy, abolish House of Lords

7. Origins of the Glorious Revolution

   1. English Republic ends in 1655 - Oliver Cromwell was a dictator

   2. After Cromwell’s death (1658), monarchy is restored

   3. Charles II ruled in a relatively peaceful period

   4. James II

      1. Catholic and Anti-Protestant

      2. Two Protestant Daughters

8. The Glorious Revolution

   1. 1688 - James’ son is born (to be raised Catholic)

   2. Parliament invites Mary and William to “invade” from Holland

   3. James flees from England

   4. 1689 - Parliament agrees to rule of William and Mary (with a Bill of Rights)

9. Results of the Glorious Revolution

   1. Limited (Constitutional) Monarchy

      1. Destroyed idea of divine right

      2. Asserted Parliament’s “permanent” role in government (“to be held frequently”)

   2. English Bill of Rights (1689)

      1. Freedom of Speech

      2. Right to Petition the Government

      3. No Cruel or Unusual Punishment

   3. Guaranteed rights to all Englishmen (victory for bourgeoisie)

• Effects of Enlightenment on America

1. Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)

   1. England

      1. James II (Catholic) removed from power 

      2. William and Mary (Protestants from Holland) take power

   2. After Revolution, England pays less attention to the colonies

2. Seven Years War (1756-1763)

   1. Britain and France compete for control of North America, Caribbean and India

• Treaty of Paris (1763) eliminates France as colonial power

2. Britain wins control of North America east of the Mississippi River

3. Creates a large debt for the British government

3. Causes of the American Revolution 

   1. The Proclamation of 1763

   2. Stamp Act Protests 

   3. Boston Massacre (1770)

   4. Boston Tea Party (1773)

• Consequences of American Revolution

1. American Revolution

   1. Taxes imposed on colonies lead to revolution

   2. Declaration of Independence (1776)

      1. Jefferson’s words based on Locke

      2. Government based on consent of the governed

      3. “Pursuit of Happiness” - to attract masses

2. Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) 

   1. First constitution of the U.S.

   2. Had no chief executive or national court system

   3. Could not tax or draft soldiers

   4. Designed to be a weak government

3. Shay’s Rebellion (1786)

   1. Massachusetts farmers rise up against the state

   2. Rebels threaten property rights (they did not want to lose their farms when they went into debt)

   3. Wealthy citizens pay to put down rebellion

   4. Proved that the Articles were a failure

4. U.S. Constitution (1789)

   1. An Enlightenment (Liberal) Document?

      1. Separation of powers (Montesquieu)

      2. Added Bill of Rights (natural rights - Locke)

   2. Conservative Document?

      1. Strong central government to protect property

      2. Property requirement for voting

      3. Slave-owning was protected

• Causes of French Revolution

1. The Old Regime

   1. The First Estate

      1. The clergy represented .5% (half of a percent) of the population

      2. The clergy did not have to pay most taxes

      3. The Church owned 10% of the land

   2. The Second Estate

      1. Nobles represented 1.5%  of the population

      2. Nobles paid very little in taxes

      3. Only nobles could reach high positions in France

      4. The nobles owned 20% of the land

   3. The Third Estate (27 million people)

      1. 98% of the population belonged to this class

      2. Most members of the Third Estate were too poor to own land

      3. The Third Estate paid heavy taxes to the Church (the tithe) and the King

      4. Owned 70% of the land (in small pieces)

2. Economic Strife in France

   1. A bad series of harvests led to severe food shortages and high prices

   2. Wars (Seven Years War, American Revolution) had left France deep in debt

      1. (½ of taxes in 1789 to pay interest on debt)

   3. France had a large deficit (spent more than it collected in taxes)

   4. Jacques Necker’s attempt to tax the 1st and 2nd Estates was rejected

3. The Estates General

   1. Louis XVI decided to raise taxes on the 2nd estate, who then called for a meeting of the Estates General to discuss it

   2. The Estates General was similar to England’s Parliament 

      1. The 1st Estate had 300 members, the 2nd Estate had 300 members, and the Third Estate had 600 members

      2. But each Estate had only one vote

      3. The 1st and 2nd almost always sided against the 3rd

   3. Each estate was instructed to prepare cahiers (list of grievances)

      1. More fair taxation system

      2. Freedom of the press

      3. Regular meetings of the Estates General

   4. Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and vowed to write a constitution for France.

4. The Bastille

   1. The Bastille was a prison in Paris and a symbol of injustice in France

   2. July 14, 1789 - An Angry mob attacked the Bastille

   3. The mob killed the guards and freed the (7) prisoners, but found no weapons

   4. Prisoners had been well-treated (multi-course meals, furniture, parties, etc.)

• Effects of the French Revolution

1. Moderate Reforms (1789-1791)

   1. August 4, 1789 - Nobles agree to abolish feudalism

   2. Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 26, 1789)

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

1. Spelled out the “natural rights” of people

1. Liberty, property, security

2. Freedom of speech, press

3. Right to participate in lawmaking process

2. Placed sovereignty in the “nation”

3. Wealth (not birth, blood or privilege) new basis for social order

3. Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790):

   1. Sought to end power and influence of Catholic Church

      1. Priests and bishops were to be elected

      2. Church lands would be sold

      3. Ended papal authority

   2. 400 million francs in Church property auctioned off (10% of all of Church land)

4. Constitution of 1791:

   1. Created a limited monarchy (like England)

   2. Legislative Assembly was created to make new laws, conduct foreign affairs, collect taxes (but only 50,000 of 27 million were eligible for office)

   3. Equal rights were guaranteed to all male citizens

5. Other Reforms

   1. Guaranteed citizenship to Jews and Protestants

   2. Brought an end to primogeniture

• Post-Revolutionary France

1. Threats to the Revolution

   1. External 

      1. 1791 - Declaration of Pillnitz - Prussia and Austria vow to invade France to protect monarchy

      2. 1792 - Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria, Prussia and Britain

   2. Winning the War

      1. Levée en masse - all citizens contribute to war effort

      2. Sept. 1792 - Valmy - French stop Austrian and Prussian invasion

   3. Internal

      1. Refractory Priests - less than ½ of clergy and only 7 of 100 bishops took oath of loyalty to the Revolution

      2. Royalists - mostly nobles who wanted a return to monarchy

2. Who did the French Revolution ignore?

   1. Women did not get equality or the right to participate in the government

   2. Olympe de Gouges was executed

   3. Peasants were not a priority

      1. Food prices remained high

      2. The Vendée (March 1793) - bloody peasant revolt in Southwestern France

• The Flight to Varennes (1791)

3. Radical Reforms (1792-1793)

   1. August 1792

      1. Mob attacks king’s palace and kills the guards

      2. King flees to Legislative Assembly for protection

   2. The French Republic

      1. September 1792 - National Convention meets

      2. Abolished monarchy, established republic

      3. Universal male suffrage

   3. Trial of Louis XVI

      1. Convicted by one vote

      2. Jan. 1793 - Louis XVI guillotined

4. The Terror (1793-1794)

   1. Committee in Public Safety

      1. 12 radical leaders led by Maximilien Robespierre

      2. New secular calendar (10-day weeks, Year-one = 1792)

      3. Successful invasions of Italy and Netherlands

      4. Crushed peasant revolts

   2. “Republic of Virtue” (through terror)

      1. All “enemies of the Revolution” (anyone who disagreed with the radicals) were punished

      2. As many as 40,000 people were beheaded during the Reign of Terror (15% nobles and clergy, 15% middle class, 70% peasants and sans-culottes)

   3. 9th of Thermidor (July 1794)

      1. Robespierre is arrested and beheaded

      2. Committee of Public Safety disbanded

• Haitian Revolution

1. Slavery and the Enlightenment

   1. Most philosophies saw slavery as a violation of natural law

   2. Montesquieu stated that Slavery made brutes in both the slave and master

      1. Defended property right

   3. Diderot believed that slavery violated rights to self-government

   4. Voltaire believed that Africans were inferior

2. Pre-Revolutionary Haiti

   1. Profitable sugar plantations

   2. White slave owners w/ large plantations (composed of 40k people)

   3. “Free People of Color” (30k people)

      1. Black slave owners w/ smaller plantations

      2. Free people of mixed race (mulattos)

   4. Slaves (500k)

      1. Deadly towards slaves as work was a risky and dangerous process

      2. Caused constant importation and replacement of slaves to Haiti

3. Causes of Revolt

   1. France

      1. 1791 - Slavery abolished in France

      2. 1794 - Slavery abolished in French colonies

   2. Haiti 

      1. Whites demanded independence from France to be able to own slaves

      2. Free blacks demanded equal rights, but not the abolition of slavery

      3. 1791 - Haitian Civil War

4. The Haitian Revolution

   1. Independence

      1. Led by Toussaint L’Ouverture

      2. French were removed by 1798

   2. Napoleon

      1. Wanted to retake island and restore slavery in 1802

      2. L’Ouverture was captured and died in a French prison, but Haitians were successful

   3. 1804 - Haiti declared independence

      1. Haitians won as French army was thinned out due to disease (yellow fever)

5. Aftermath

   1. Sugarcane fields were destroyed due to vigorous battles

   2. Most plantations divided into small peasant plots (instead of cash crop agriculture), causing rapid deforestation

   3. U.S. refused to recognize Haiti as it feared its own slave uprising, and Haiti needed to pay France 150m to be recognized

• Congress of Vienna

1. Priorities of the Congress of Vienna

   1. “Restoration” - Monarchs returned to France, Spain, Italy

   2. “Legitimacy” - New monarchs were from old royal families

   3. “Balance of Power” - France made weaker and neighbors were made stronger

2. Redrawing the Map

   1. Prussia gained French territory, Austria gained Italian provinces by France

   2. Netherlands acquired Belgium

• Motive was to prevent Napoleon from returning to power

3. The Quadruple Alliance (The Concert of Europe)

   1. Composed of Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria who united to crush revolution

   2. Actions

      1. Rulers encouraged to resist to any change

      2. Books and newspapers were censored

      3. Liberal reformers were arrested

      4. Reactionary and conservative movement

• 1830 - French revolted due to rate of ruler, tore streets, overthrew government

• 1848 - French citizens overthrow gov’t more, overthrow king

• Revolutions led to gov’t redesigning Paris to stop, Louis Napoleon (nephew) named president in 1838

• Latin American Revolutions

1. Classes of Latin America 

   1. Peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, Mulatos, Natives, Slaves 

2. Revolutions

   1. Causes

      1. Internal

         1. Class conflict between lower and upper

         2. European-educator leaders (learned of Enlightenment ideas/events)

      2. External

         1. American revolution inspiration

         2. French revolution

         3. Napoleon invitations of Portugal (1807) and Spain (1808)

   2. Mexico

      1. Initiated by 2 priests, Miguel Hidalgo (Creole) and Jose Morelos (Mestizo)

      2. Creoles eventually worked w/ lower classes in fear of “revolution from below”

      3. Achieved independence in 1812

   3. South America

      1. Led by Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin

      2. Bolívar (“El Libertador”) frees Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru

      3. San Martin liberated Argentina, Chile, Ecuador and Peru

   4. Brazil

      1. Portuguese royal family flees to Brazil after Napoleon’s invasion

      2. King returns to Portugal, but son Pedro stays

      3. 1822 - Pedro declares himself as emperor, creating constitution and allowing elections

      4. Known as a “revolution from above”

3. Failed Revolutions

   1. Continued Class Conflict

      1. Peninsulares removed, Creoles became new conservatives

      2. Constitutions restricted vote to propertied class

      3. Liberals were from lower classes, mostly powerless

   2. The Church

      1. Owned land, controlled all education and charities

      2. Redistribution of Church land was unsuccessful

      3. Church became too conservative and powerful

   3. Gran Colombia (1819 - 1830)

      1. Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador united under one government

      2. Simon Bolivar dreamed of uniting all nations of South America

      3. Rivalries among revolutionary leaders broke up union

Beginning of Industrial Revolution

• Process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrialized economies (by hand -> machine)

• Changed society, political power, and economies

• Why Britain came first

1. Precondition 1: Agriculture

   1. Alternating crops prevent soil from wearing out (nitrogen cycle)

      1. Clover and turnips led to the growth of livestock business

      2. Turnips could be stored in winter → sustainable food

   2. Seed Drill

      1. Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently, leading to less waste and more harvest

   3. Agricultural Revolution freed rural workers to move to the cities (Rapid Urbanization)

   4. Enclosure Movement - Wealthy landowners began fencing off public land (commons)

   5. Small farmers/herders forced into employment

2. Precondition 2: Geography

   1. Britain had many natural harbors and canals (water transport cheaper than land transport)

   2. Britain was rich in coal and iron ore

3. Precondition 3: Government

   1. Government protected businesses and help them expand

   2. Large merchant fleet and a navy to protect it (increased trade)

   3. Colonies provided raw materials and markets

4. Precondition 4: Economics

   1. Growing population increased demand

   2. Colonial expansion increased national wealth

   3. Growing class of entrepreneurs/capitalists ready to invest in factories and experimentations to strike it rich

   4. Legal protection of private property, causing entrepreneurs to invest more

• The Factory System

  • A place where goods for sale were mass produced by machine

  • Concentrated production in a single location, powered by the water frame (Richard Arkwright)

    • Would be connected to spinning jenny (J. Hargreaves), which could increase production of textile

    • Before, could only be made with artisans, but new workers did not need certain skills (easily replaceable)

Industrialization Spreads (1750-1900)

• Steam Engine

• Spread was able to be done with steam engine, which converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy (James Watt)

  • Allowed for factories to be built in-land instead of near waterways

  • Led to rapid industrialization throughout Britain

• Steam engines were utilized in many different ways, such as steamships, allowing transportation of goods further and faster, further connecting the world

• Shifting World Economics

  • Some places industrialized rapidly, while others did not

  • Based upon if they had the factors for industrialization (same as the ones in Britain)

    • Many in Eastern and Southern Europe industrialized slowly as they had little coal and were landlocked and hindered by nobility

    • Led to divide in the world of industrialization and non-industrialized countries

      • Countries in Middle East and Asia who had previously been manufacturing powerhouses of the world saw their share of production decline

      • India and Egypt saw a decrease in their market share due to cheaper mass produced textiles in Britain

    • Caused a power shift to the countries who were industrialized

• Comparison of Industrialized Nations

  • France began to industrialize in 1815 due to Napoleon's rule

    • Adopted industrial technology, but was at a much slower pace as they did not have abundant coal and iron

    • Napoleon created the Quentin Canal, connecting paris with iron and coal fields

    • Government sponsored construction of railroads and had textile factories by 1830s, creating cotton industry and revived silk industry

      • Due to slow adoption, France did not experience social upheavals that Britain did

  • United States industrialized quickly proceeding the Civil War

    • Became a major industrial power due to having many of the industrial factors

      • Had massive territory and political stability, as well as a growing population

    • Led to higher standing of living than those in Europe

  • Russia still remained under dictatorship in 1800s, but dictators recognized that Russia needed to industrialize to keep up

    • Adopted railroad and steam engine technologies

    • Trans-Siberian railroad allowed for establishment of better trade and an interdependent market throughout Russia

    • Though the industrial revolution in Russia was successful, yielded horrid conditions for workers

      • Led to many uprisings, eventually leading to the Russian Revolution of 1905

    • Differed from industrialization in US as it was Russia was state-driven in response to Russia’s late development

  • Japan industrialized in response to other Asian countries being overtaken by Western powers

    • Political

      • 1889 - A constitution was written, which created a Diet (law-making body) 

      • New laws were passed which ended torture and set court procedures 

      • The military was strengthened using western technology 

    • Economic

      • The government set up banking, postal, and railroad systems

      • The government built factories and sold them to wealthy businessmen 

      • Wealthy families (zaibatsu) controlled many businesses for generations 

      • Japan developed into major industrial power by 1890s 

    • Social 

      • The constitution abolished class divisions, leading to more equality

      • Women began to work in factories 

      • Compulsory elementary school for all children

Technology of the Industrial Age

• Came from 2 industrial revolutions, first was mostly in Great Britain (1750-1830), second in Europe, US, Russia, Japan (1870-1914)

• Fuels and Engines

  • First Industrial Revolution

1. Coal

   1. Burned hotter than wood which was used to boil water

   2. Helped to power the main engine of the First Industrial Revolution, the steam engine

   3. Developed by British Scientist James Watt

   4. Used to power locomotive engines and steam engines which helped to transport mass produced goods

• Second Industrial Revolution

2. Oil

   1. Marked the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution

   2. Refined into gasoline and other products such as kerosene

   3. Gasoline was used to power the internal combustion engine, which could power automobiles

• Both sources of fuel increased amount of energy available to humans, despite having environmental costs such as pollution

• Second Industrial Revolution Technology

1. Steel

   1. Main building material of the second industrial revolution in comparison to iron

   2. 1850 Bessemer Process - removed carbon from iron efficiently

   3. Steel for railroad tracks, farm machines, bridges and the frames of skyscrapers (more versatile)

   4. 1892 - Carnegie Steel Company (steel monopoly)

2. Chemical Engineering

   1. Synthetic dyes developed for textiles were cheaper than natural dye

   2. Vulcanization was a process that developed to make rubber harder and more durable 

3. Electricity

   1. Edison invents the lightbulb, which lit houses and factories

   2. Electric streetcars and subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities

4. Communication

   1. Telegraph → invented by Samuel Morse in 1844

   2. 1st transatlantic cable in 1858 → U.S. connected with Europe

   3. Telephone → invented by Alexander Graham Bell

   4. Phonograph → invented by Thomas Edison

• Effects of New Technology

1. Development of Interior Regions

   1. For majority of history, major cities were located in coastal areas as that is where most trade occurred

   2. Due to development of railroads, new settlements were developed in places that used to be landlocked

   3. Telegraph made instant communication possible

2. Increase of Trade and Migration

   1. Global trade multiplied by a factor of ten between 1850 and 1913

   2. Resulted in states becoming more closely interlinked into a global economy

   3. More than half of Europe's population migrated from rural to urban areas

   4. 20% later migrated to different countries and continents 

Government Role in Industrialization

• Egyptian/Ottoman Industrialization

  • Ottomans were struggling and declining due to internal conflict/corruption, could not industrialize

  • Muhammad Ali helped Egypt to take steps to industrialize, changed with Tanzimat Reforms

1. Industrial Projects

   1. Textile and weapons factories multiplied

2. Agriculture

   1. Peasants directed to grow wheat and cotton to be sold to gov’t for profit on global market

3. Tariffs 

   1. Taxes implemented by Ali on imported goods

   2. Done to protect development of Egyptian economy

• Was not successful, as Britain wanted to put goods into Egypt, outcompeting local companies

• Japanese Industrialization 

  • Was almost completely isolated during rule of Tokugawa Shogunate

1. Japan and the U.S. 

   1. 1853 - Commodore Matthew Perry visits Japan from the U.S. 

      1. U.S. wanted the Tokugawa shogunate to end 200 years of isolation 

      2. Arguments for opening Japan: 

         1. The U.S. had modern technology/innovation

         2. The U.S. might use force if Japan did not agree to trade

         3. Japan needed to change

      3. Arguments for Isolation (AGAINST opening Japan):

         1. Americans were “barbarians” (uncivilized people)

         2. Japan was better off isolated and protected 

         3. Japan did not want to deal with a nation that used threats 

   2. 1854 - The U.S. and Japan sign the Treaty of Kanagawa

      1. Opened two Japanese ports to American ships 

      2. Opened diplomatic relations 

   3. Results: 

      1. Other Western nations made unequal treaties with Japan to extend trade 

      2. Japan sent representatives to the U.S. (under Emperor Mutsuhito Meiji) 

      3. Imported Western ideas and technology 

2. Meiji Restoration (1868 - 1912) 

   1. Dissatisfaction with the Shogun’s rule (westernization) 

      1. Shogun had allowed foreigners into Japan 

      2. Japan’s experience mirrored China (worried they were going to be imperialized) 

   2. 1868 - Shogun was forced to step down and the emperor was restored to power 

   3. This 15 year old emperor began a period of “meiji” or “enlightened rule” 

   4. Emperor Mutsuhito Meiji sent advisors to Europe and U.S. to learn modern, western ways (to close the gap between Japan and the West) 

3. Changes Under the Meiji 

   1. Political

      1. 1889 - A constitution was written, which created a Diet (law-making body) 

      2. New laws were passed which ended torture and set court procedures 

      3. The military was strengthened using western technology 

   2. Economic

      1. The government set up banking, postal, and railroad systems

      2. The government built factories and sold them to wealthy businessmen 

      3. Wealthy families (zaibatsu) controlled many businesses for generations 

      4. Japan developed into major industrial power by 1890s 

   3. Social 

      1. The constitution abolished class divisions, leading to more equality

      2. Women began to work in factories 

      3. Compulsory elementary school for all children 

Economic Development and Innovations

• Slow Death of Mercantilism

  • During industrial revolution, mercantilism slowly lost influence as free market economics grew in popularity

1. “Laissez-Faire” Capitalism

   1. Introduced by Adam Smith in “The Wealth of Nations” (1776)

   2. “Laissez-Faire” is when businesses are left to run themselves → free trade, “free market economy” (marketplace makes the rules) / invisible hand

   3. “Laissez-faire” motivated the entrepreneurs of the Industrial Revolution.

2. The Government’s Role in “Laissez-Faire”

   1. To protect society from violence/invasion

   2. To protect citizens from injustice/oppression

   3. To erect and maintain public works and public institutions

3. Thomas Malthus

   1. Wrote “An Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798)

   2. Population will always outgrow resources → “preventive check” → famine, disease, war. The poor are the cause of their property

   3. Malthus was proven wrong

• Critics of the Free Market

1. Jeremy Bentham

   1. Argued cure for the suffering of the working class and society was not free market economics but gov’t legislation

2. Friedrich List

   1. Rejected global free market principles, saying it was a trick

   2. His work led to development of Zollverein, customs union reducing trade barriers between German states but put tariffs on imports

• Transnational Corporations

  • A company that is established and controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in many other countries

1. Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation

   1. Opened in 1865 in British controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial ventures (imports of opium)

2. Unilever Corporation

   1. A joint company between British and Dutch that manufactured household goods, most known for soap

   2. Opened factories in different parts of the world, getting goods from colonies

   3. Relied on new financial practices to fund these

• New Financial Practices

1. Stock Markets

   1. Raised funds by selling stocks, small parts of ownership to the company

   2. Stockholders profited when company profited

2. Limited Liability Corporations

   1. Protected financial investment of its owners

   2. Allowed owners to take more risky investments, as they were only able to lose what they invested

• Effects of Industrial Capitalism

  • Experienced 3 major crises, but all industrialized nations were much more rich than they were in 1800s

  • Led to rising standard of living and more access to consumer goods

  • Created a new growing middle class able to purchase the new mass produced consumer goods in the market

    • Allowed for production and products to be cheaper, allowing more and more people to have it

  • Mechanized farming caused better harvest, increasing abundance of food and leading to longer lifespan

Reactions to Industrial Economy (1750-1900)

• Calls for Reform

1. Political Reform

   1. Only appealed to upperclassmen

   2. Rise of mass based political parties

   3. Conservatives and liberals in Britain and France incorporated social reform into platforms because people who wanted reforms were voting

   4. Reform Bill of 1867

      1. Granted right to vote to all males in Great Britain

      2. Eliminated all property or wealth requirements for voting (peasants could vote!)

2. Social Reform

   1. Working class began organizing into unions

3. Education Reform

   1. From 1870-1914, many gov’ts passed compulsory education laws

   2. High paying jobs were more technical, and education prepared kids for these jobs

   3. The Factory Act (1833)

      1. Banned employment of any child under 9 years old

      2. Limited workday for children under 13 to nine hours

      3. Limited workday for children 13 to 18 to twelve hours

   4. Education Act of 1870

      1. Gave individual towns the authority to establish public elementary schools

      2. This law gave many working class parents the option to send their children to school for the first time

4. Urban Reform

   1. Due to intense crowding, urban areas were unsanitary and dangerous

   2. Gov’ts passed law and invested in sanitary infrastructure

• Rise of Labor Unions

  • Collective of workers who join together to protect their own interests

  • Allowed for workers to make change that they wanted as they were in masses

  • Used to get higher wages, limited hours, improved conditions

  • Some turned into political parties (German Social Democratic Party) 

• Ideological Reactions

1. Luddism

1. Anti-technology movement

2. Raised an “army” → destroyed factory machines

3. Threat ended by British army around 1817

       2.    Marxism/Scientific Socialism

1. Philosophy that called for public ownership of the “means of production” (factories)

1. Varieties of Socialism

   1. Utopian socialism - creation of perfect society

      1. Utopian Socialism

         1. Charles Fourier developed the phalanx (working community)

            1. Each community had 1,600 workers, and each worker did the job for which they were the best at

            2. No one worked for more than 2 hours at a time → frequent breaks, best work quality possible

         2. Robert Owen set up a utopian community in Scotland.

            1. Provided his workers high wage, schools, homes and stores

            2. Proved it was possible to treat workers better

            3. Opened second community in Indiana (failed)

   2. Electoral socialism - formation of political parties that promoted industrial reforms

   3. Communism

2. Communism

   1. Karl Marx (and Frederich Engels) wrote the “Communist Manifesto” in 1848

   2. Marx viewed history as a “class struggle” → haves (middle class) and have nots → working class

   3. Class with MOST economic power controls the government

   4. The Proletarian Revolution

      1. As the proletariat grows, rebellion occurs

      2. Marx believed the proletariat would rule, and the state (govt.) would wither away.

3. Why was Marx wrong?

   1. Economics isn’t only force that shapes history

   2. Nationalism proved a stronger link than economic class

   3. Workers DID receive aid from the government

   4. Communism did NOT take root in industrial nations, ironically.

• Industrialization in China

  • In Qing China, Chinese attempted to snub British traders, causing a deficit in trade for British

  • British began smuggling opium into China, heavily affecting population and causing opium wars

    • Led to defeat of China, causing opening of chinese ports to western power (Treaty of Nanjing) and forming of spheres of influence (exclusive trading right)

    • China attempted to recover with Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s-1870s)

      • Adopt Western technology, Maintain Confucian traditions, institutions

      • Attempted to take steps towards modernization and industrialization

      • Stopped by landowning class, who was afraid of getting rights taken (deemed a failure after loss in Sino-Japanese)

• Modernization in Ottoman Empire

  • Known among western power as Sick Man of Europe as they had lost more and more power to western industrialized power

  • Decided industrialization was necessary to keep afloat

  • Resulted in Tanzimat reforms, westernizing with more textile factories, law codes, education systems (more secular)

    • New group named the Young Turks/Ottomans formed from this who wanted European style parliament and constitutional gov’t to limit sultans

    • Sultan conceded and accepted reforms, but after Russia and Ottoman tension increased, Sultan refused reforms

Society and the Industrial Age

• New Social Classes

1. Industrial Working Class

   1. Composed of mostly factory workers and miners

   2. Came from rural immigrants in search of work

   3. Work changed from specialized to repetitive task (workers seen as replaceable)

      1. Wages were higher than rural areas

      2. Faced bad conditions, with dangers from work and crowded living conditions

2. Middle Class

   1. Benefited most from industrialization, included white collar workers and wealthy factory owners

   2. Could afford manufactured products improving quality of life and some upper middle class could buy into aristocracy

   3. Believed that they rose to middle class from their work and effort

3. Industrialists

   1. At top of social hierarchy, wealth gained allowed them to become more powerful than traditional aristocrats

• Women in Industries

1. Working Class Women

   1. Worked wage-earning jobs in factories since their husbands’ wages were not sufficient to sustain a family (if married)

2. Middle Class Women

   1. Husbands made enough to support their family

   2. Women did not work, remained in their “separate sphere” to be homemakers and nurture children

• Challenges Faced

  • Rapid pace of industrialization meant industrial cities grew far too quickly for infrastructure

1. Pollution

   1. Coal smoke from factories and steam ships covered towns in soot and fog caused health problems

   2. Industrial and human waste dumped into rivers polluted drinking water

2. Housing Shortages

   1. Due to high migration into urban areas, tenements were built to house

   2. Several families lived together, which were poorly ventilated and unsanitized 

   3. Caused rapid spread of disease

3. Increased Crime

   1. Significant rise in theft and violent crime due to alcohol consumption