Chapter 19: American Empire

American Empire

Introduction

The concept of empire extends beyond traditional notions of military conquest and colonization, encompassing various forms and contexts. The late 19th-century United States, a century after its independence from the British Empire, exhibited characteristics of an empire through its global engagements. This involved interventions in the Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East, notably the Spanish-American War and the foreign policies of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft. American imperialism is viewed as the study of American involvements in areas like Cuba, the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico, alongside the examination of how American economic, political, and cultural influence shaped the trajectories of other nations.

Simultaneously, the U.S. experienced increased immigration, raising questions about American identity and obligations to both foreign entities and newcomers. These issues about national identity came to the forefront during this period.

Patterns of American Interventions

American interventions in Mexico, China, and the Middle East showed the country's increased interest in intervening in foreign governments to safeguard American economic interests. The United States had a longstanding presence in Pacific commerce since 1784, with American ships engaging in trade with China. Despite Asian trade constituting a relatively small portion of total American foreign trade, its perceived importance influenced American policy and prompted interventions when those markets faced threats. In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay introduced the Open Door Policy, advocating for equal access to Chinese markets for all Western powers. This policy was driven by fears that imperial powers such as Japan, Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia, intended to divide China into spheres of influence. Maintaining free trade in China was seen as crucial for American business interests. In 1900, American troops participated in a multinational effort to suppress the Boxer Rebellion, which opposed foreign businesses and missionaries in China. President McKinley's decision to deploy the U.S. Army without congressional approval established a precedent for future presidential actions involving American troops abroad.

The U.S. also demonstrated readiness to acquire territory, starting with the Guano Islands Act of 1856. This act facilitated the acquisition of islands with guano deposits, a sought-after fertilizer for industrial farming. These became the first insular, unincorporated territories of the United States, lacking state or federal district status and without a path to attaining such status. This act set a precedent for later American territorial acquisitions.

Alongside merchants, Christian missionaries played a significant role in American expansion into the Pacific. They arrived in Hawaii in 1820 and China in 1830, often working alongside business interests. In Hawaii, American missionaries acquired considerable land and established profitable sugar plantations. By the 19th century, Hawaii was governed by an oligarchy of sugar companies known as the “Big Five”, a white American (haole) elite operating outside formal American state power.

American focus extended to Latin America with increased economic, social, and cultural interactions. American capitalists invested heavily in Mexico during the rule of Porfirio Diaz. The 1910 Mexican Revolution against Díaz, while ending his regime, also threatened American business interests, leading to calls for U.S. intervention. When Victoriano Huerta executed President Francisco Madero in 1913, President Woodrow Wilson pressured Mexico's new regime, refusing recognition and demanding free elections. The Tampico incident in 1914, involving the arrest of American sailors, led to U.S. intervention in Veracruz. Subsequently, the U.S. supported Venustiano Carranza over Pancho Villa. Villa's attack on Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916, resulted in a punitive expedition led by General John J.