CLCV 208 // ROMAN CIVILIZATION

THE BEGINNING

Romans absorbed the cultures and traditions of those they conquered
Sardina, The Nuragic Civilization (ca. 1800-200 bce)
- Nuraghe - Bronze cylindrical towers were made across the region for some unknown reason
Mycenaean, Greece, Crete, & Cyprus
- Bronze weapons on the market such as daggers, axes, swords, etc.
Italian mainland
- The Italian Bronze Age (aka. Apennine Culture) lasted from 2000 to 1200 BCE in Central and Southern Italy
  - Inhumation burials (Cremation)
- In Northern Italy, The Bronze Age was represented by Terramare or “Black Earth” culture
- The Iron Age began in North and Central Italy with the Villanovan Culture (1200-700 bce)
  - Cross-cultural interactions began after the need for amber inspired the Romans to interact within the Baltic Sea
P Speakers vs. Q Speakers
- Q Speakers go southern which later develops into Latin
- P speakers stay northern and central and develop into Italian

WHAT IS ROME?

Etruscans located across Northern Italy
- Older siblings of the Romans
- Later dispersed into twelve major cities
- Elite tombs as evidence for Etruscan funerary customs and beliefs, society
Eturia is rich in metal resources
Etruscans believed in many minor and major gods representing the natural world
- Divination (interpreting the will of the gods) and Etruscan science -> auspicy/augury (watching behavior of birds) + haruspicy (examining sheep livers)
The peak of Etruscan prosperity in the 7th and most of 6th century BC
Western Greeks in Southern Italy and on Sicily _> colonies (est. 750-550 BC) of Greek cities in mainland Greece and Minor = Magna Graecia
- Trade hubs, mixed populations
- Significant cultural influence on Romans, Etruscans, and Italic peoples
Italic peoples of Central Italy
- Ex Latins, Oscans, Samnites, Campanians, Apulians, Lucanians
- Latium south of Tiber River in West-Central Italy -> Rome founded in Latium c. 10 miles from the coast
Etruscans, western Greeks, and Italic peoples = multicultural climate for Rome’s foundation

FOUNDING ROME

The seven hills of Rome: Capitoline and Palatine (tallest), Caelian, Esquiline, Aventine, Viminal, Quirinal
- Flooded valleys between hills
Archaeology and later historical accounts (beg. C. 200 BC) laced with myth and legend as sources
Earliest settlement on Capitoline Hill (hut traces dated to 10th century BC)
8th Cent. BC huts on Palatine Hill (timber frames, stick and mud walls, thatch roofs)
Marshy valley at Capitoline (later the forum) orig cremation cemeteries (hut-shaped urns with surrounding grave goods)
- Cemetery moved in late 9th cent. BC
Inhabitants of early Rome increasingly diverse
- Rome’s strategic location along Tiber
- Funerary + votive evidence for Etruscan and Greek inhabitants
Early Romans farmers, pastoralists
Several Greek and Roman sources on Rome’s foundation and early development -> mix of fact, legend, myth, anachronisms in constructed narratives
Ex Book 1 of Livy’s History of Rome, late 1st cent. BC
- Context: first Roman Emperor Augustus restores order after decades of civil war
- Goal: praise the Roman people as imperial power but warn them to learn from the past
Need for critical reading, only loose correspondence to archaeological data

ROME IN MYTH

Aeneas as first founder of the Roman people (Trojan noble, son of goddess Venus), c. 1174 BC
Aeneas and Trojans encounter Latins under King Latinus -> conflict, peace, Trojans mix with Latins
Aeneas founded Lavinium -> son Ascanius founded Alba Longa
Ascanius’ descendent Numitor loses throne to brother Amulius -> N’s daughter Rhea Silvia made Vestal Virgin
The God Mars impregnates Rhea Silvia -> Romulus and Remus born
Romulus and Remus want to found settlement along Tiber
R&R compete in auspicy/augury to name and lead Rome -> Romulus kills Remus
Rome founded April 21, 753 BC
Beginning of Rome under the kings/Archaic Rome
First settlement on Palatine -> “Romulus’ hut” a Roman national monument
King Romulus accredited with instituting many Roman practices (be skeptical!):
- Established first Roman Senate -> 100 members, heads of Rome’s clans
- Instituted various laws, symbols of office (ex. Lictors and fasces)
- Brought mixed population to Rome
- Stole respectable wives for Rome’s men from the Sabines at Consuelia festival
  - The Rape of the Sabine Women
What do these early developments and their attributions to Romulus say about the Romans?
Two stories about Romulus’ end:
- Angry senators tear Romulus apart
- Romulus’s apotheosis
Lapis Niger, dark pavement with altar in Roman forum as marker of Romulus’ end
- Marker with mid-6th cent. BC inscription in old Latin, S Etruscan alphabet
- Records law that dictates sacredness of spot
Seven mythical kings, advised by the Senate, consulted assemblies of the people
- Romulus 753-716 Established Secular institutions
- Numa Pompilius 716-672 Established religious institutions
- Tullus Hostilius 672-640 Engaged in warfare
- Ancus Martius 640-616 Engaged in Warfare and built bridges
- Tarquin the Old 616-578 First Etruscan King, built the Cloaca Maxima
- Servius Tullius 578-533 Built the first wall, took the first census
- Tarquin the Proud 533-509 Last King, built the Capitoline temple
Last three kings Etruscans (late 7th through 6th cent. BC)
- Spread of Etruscan influence into Latium 6th cent. BC + infrastructural remains
Tarquinius Priscus (king #5, 616-578 BC)
- Myth: Built big drain to forum for more use -> Fact: forum filled with soil, crossed by big drain (Cloaca Maxima) in late 7th cent. BC
- Fact: large house for authority figures at NW corner of forum by late 7th cent. BC
- Myth: first chariot racing tract (early Cricus Maximus)
Tarquinius Superbus, last king (533-509 BC)
- Ruthless warlord
- Started construction of Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill
Sextus Tarquinius and the Rape of Lucretia and the end of Archaic Rome
- What does Lucreatia and her fate say about Romans’ expectations for women?
- Lucius Junius Brutus leads a revolt

CUSTOMS OF ROMANS

Supreme authority of mos maiorum (the way of the ancestors)
Patricians (elites) and plebeians (small farmers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, etc.)
- Patron-client relationship
Highly structured family life: paterfamilias had ultimate authority
- Women always had a male legal guardian
Animistic and polytheistic religion (ex. Capitoline Triad Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- Many priesthoods held separately than political office
- Etruscan-style divination (auspicy/augury, haruspicy)

SUCCESSIONS AND STRUGGLES OF THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE

Tarquinius Superbus expelled from Rome after the Rape of Lucretia
Res Publica = all free patricians and plebeian men involved in state
- No women, slaves, freedmen
Separation of governing power among several magistracies with short terms (usually one year)
- First consuls Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus
- (ie. two consuls with power of kings)
Senate advised consuls, helped formulate laws with resolutions (senatus consulta)
- Magistrates became senators
- Controlled state finances, foreign policy
- More legislative power + senators over time (ex. 300 by 2nd cent. BC, 600 by 1st cent AD)
Proposals of consuls and Senate needed confirmed by voting assemblies of the people
- Bribing voters common, expected adherence to patron-client relationship

CONFLICT OF THE ORDERS (500 -287 BC)

Patricians control of Roman Republic
At first, plebeians kept out of magistracies and Senate, left ignorant about laws -> ongoing plebeian struggle for voice in government
Plebeians would use succession to the Aventine Hill and striking
Curiate Assembly (Comitia Curiata) - Earliest; people divided into 30 kin groups (curiae)
- Voted for magistrates and priesthoods; Centuriate Assembly gradually more important
Centuriate Assembly (Comitia Centuriata) - Developed c. 500 BC but attributed to 6th King Servius Tullius -> Roman citizens in 193 centuries and 5 wealth classes to determine kind of military service
- Voted for laws, senior magistrates, declaring war and peace
- Voting by wealthiest to poorest century until majority reached
- Divided into voters
  - Knights: 18th centuries, wealthiest citizens
    - Calvary
  - First Class: 100,000 asses, 80 centuries (40 seniors, 40 juniors)
    - Bronze helmet, round shield, greaves, breastplate, sword and spear
  - Second Class: 100,000 - 75,000 asses, 20 centuries
    - Same as above but no breastplate, long shield
  - Third Class: At least 50,000 asses, 20 centuries
    - Same as above but no greaves
  - Fourth Class: At least 25,000 asses, 20 centuries
    - Spear and Javelin
  - Fifth Class: At least 11,000 asses, 30 centuries
    - Slings and Stones
  - Proletariat: Less than 11,000 asses, 5 (bigger) centuries -> no military service
Council of the Plebs (Concilium Plebis) - Plebeians only, divided into 20 residential tribes
- Voted on plebiscites for plebians -> c. 450 law if confirmed by Senate + another assembly -> 287 BC (Hortensian Law) plebiscites automatically law
- Voted for tribunes of the plebs
Council of the People by Tribes (Comitia Populi Tributa) - Patricians and Plebeians, divided into 35 residential tribes
- Voted for junior magistrates, some laws

MAGISTRATES

All positions elected annually, opened to plebeians gradually
Power hierarchy:
- Consuls (2) “Presidents”
  - Proposed laws, convened Senate, commanders-in-chief
  - Very prestigious -> first consul in family is a novus homo
  - 367 BC Licinio-Sextian Law -> one plebeian consul
  - C. 444-367 BC, 2-6 military tribunes instead
- Praetors (6-8)
  - Hearing the initial inquiry and briefing of cases and then hands it off to a judge
  - State lawyers
  - Wrote case formulae, selected judges
  - Expanded with Licinio-Sextian Law, opened to plebs 337 BC
- Aediles (4)
  - Maintained public spaces and order, arranged public games
  - Introduced with tribunes in 494 BC
- Quaestors (6 -> 20)
  - State accountants
  - Marked acceptance into Senate
Cursus Honorum (“race of honors” Mathisen pg. 86)

OUTSIDE OF CURSUS HONORUM

Censors - 2 elected every 5 years for 18th months
- Only patricians initially and ex-consuls
- Took census, awarded public construction contracts, added or removed senators
Tribunes of the Plebs - 10 elected every year
- Only plebeians
- Convened Concilium Plebis + Senate, proposed laws, veto power
- Sacrosanct (post-449 BC)
Dictator and Master of Horse (Magistar Equitium) - Leaders in state of emergency for 6 months or until end of emergency
- Open to plebs in 356 BC
Proconsuls and Propraetors - Provincial governors

LAWS OF ROME

Dependence on “rule of law” in Roman Republic BUT new laws reactionary
Key Laws from Conflict of Orders:
- Valerio-Horatian Laws (449 BC)
- Licinio-Sextian Law (367 BC)
- Hortensian Law (287 BC)
Twelve Tables - First code of laws assembled by Decemvirs (450 BC)

Roman Forum

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus - temple on Capitoline Hill
- Dedicated to Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva)
- Begun under Tarquinius Superbus, became symbol of Roman Republic
Main civic buildings: three rostra, comitium, curia, basilicas
Main religious buildings: Temple of Concord, Temple of Castor and Pollux, Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vesta, and Regia

Defending the New Republic

Fights for survival and competing for influence between Rome and neighbors in Italy in 5th cent. BC
Lars Porsenna of Clusium with Tarquinii try to retake Rome (508 BC)
- Heroism of Gaius Mucius Scaevola (“lefty”)
Aequi trap Roman Army (458 BC)
- Cincinnatus to the rescue
Gallic Sack of Rome (390 BC) -> Migrating Gauls capture, plunder, burn Rome
- Marcus Furius Camillus the avenger

Rome’s Mediterranean Neighbors

Roman civilization influenced by diverse Mediterranean peoples
Roman superiority complex BUT readiness to appropriate and adapt diverse cultural elements AND admit other peoples’ successes
- Ex. high regard for Greek Culture, respect for archenemy Carthage (mid 3rd-mid 2nd cent. BC)
Gradually more foreigner in Rome as slaves then freedpeople, visitors, political hostages
Gradual and guarded spread of Roman citizenship across Mediterranean

The Celts

Hallstatt Culture: lower Danube River c. 800, spread westward into 6th cent. BC
La Tene Culture: From Hallstat Culture around Switerland c. 500, spread into 2nd cent. BC
Celts from Greek “Keloti”
Characteristics of the Celts (Hallstatt and La Tene Cultures):
- Considered barbaric (drank milk)
- Fought in a disorganized manner (Very Fierce)
- Big jewlery wearers (ex. Torques)
- Played a huge role in Mediterranean trade (known for raw and worked metals)
- Different religious practices (ex. Druids)
- Women involved in politics

The Carthaginians

Carthage was founded late 9th century. BC by Phoenicians
C. 800 - 600 BC, Carthage becomes a wealthy trading hub, independent from Tyre
- Large mixed population
- Wide variety of trade goods (ex. Pottery, iron + bronze weapons and tools, luxury goods of precious metal and stone, textiles, wine, fish, horses)
- Far-reaching trade (Sub-Saharan Africa, Arabia, Spain, Gaul, Scandinavia, Britain)
Characteristics of the Carthaginians:
- Impressive naval skills (trading and warfare)
- War Elephants, Mercenaries in war far
- Sophisticated agriculture (crop rotation)
- Spoke Punic, a “colonial” version of Phoenician
- Had a republic somewhat like the Roman one (after the Battle of Himera in 480 BC): with Suffets, and a council of 104 that led the government, still Gerousia, popular assembly if Suffets and Gerousia disagreed
- Polytheistic, same gods as the Phoenicians, esp. Melqart, Tanit, and Ba’al Hammon
  - Tophet worship site used to sacrifice children according to Roman

Mediterranean Cultural Shifts

Carthage establishes political control over neighboring Phoenician colonies in the 5th cent BC
Most African neighbors were independent allies but Berbers restricted, taxed
By 400 Carthaginian colonies in Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, Malta, and W Sicily
- Increasing conflict with Greeks in Sicily, in S Italy, beg. 6th cent BC
Characteristics of the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BC)
Spread of Greek Langauge, culture, and customs across Eastern Mediterranean
- Combination of local and green cultural elements
Kings founded new cities, benefactors for existing ones
- Tradition of semi-divine kingship

The Greeks

900-700 BC, small communities growing, coming together across Greece = Roots of city-states (poleis, sing. Polis) that began c. 600-500 BC
- Trade and colonies in E and W Mediterranean
Greek city-states in mainland Greece, Asia Minor, and across Aegean, prospered c. 6th - 4th cent. BC
Different government types (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy, monarchy)
Constant competition and warfare (ex. Peloponnesian War in the second half of the 5th century. BC)
Greek Alliances rare: against Persians (490,479)
Characteristics of Panhellenic Identity:
- Distinct architectural styles (extremely influential)
- Shared religion and mythos
- Wine-Drinking and intellectual symposia
- Literary tradition + theatrical tradition

The Macedonians

Macedon: ruled by a king and a group of advisors
- Macedonia and Thrace inhabitants by related separate ethnic groups
More intensive contact with Greek cities in the 4th cent. onward.
Phillip II of Macedon (359-336 BC)
Military Renovation and political Consolidation
Strategic thinking set of Greek culture
Alexander III (The Great 354-323 BC) took up Phillip II’s campaign against Achaemenid Persian Empire

The Jews

Lived in a lower Levant between larger kingdoms
- Different for their monotheism
- Stood out for adherence to highly noticeable ritual practice (ex. Circumcision, dietary restrictions
A long history of interactions with larger powers
- Assyrians destroy the Kingdom of Israel in 721 BC, New Babylonians end the Kingdom of Judah in 587 BC (“Babylonian Captivity”)
Rise of the Persian Empire and Jews return home
Integration in the Seleucid Empire (beg. 323 BC), some kings heavy-handed, ex. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 BC)
Independent Jewish Kingdom begs. 140 BC under the Hasmonean Dynasty (revolt of Maccabees 165-164 BC)
- A few key factions
  - (ex. Sadducees, Pharisees)
- Jewish Diaspora across the Mediterranean continues

The Roman Republic’s Wars of Expansion

Romans more aggressive toward real or imagined threats
Romans reluctant to claim direct administrative control = defensive imperialism
- Senate granted most successful generals a triumph
- Confiscated ager publicus for colonies
Romans renowned for persistence in war
- Close reliance on conquered allies for military support

The War in Italy (343-268 BC)

Three Samnite Wars and the Great Latin Revolt
- Enemies: Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls;
- Allies: Latins (except during the Revolt)
- Causes:
Effects of the wars:
- Control over all but S Italy
- Latins gain Roman citizenship or Ius Latinum
- Other Italic peoples allies (socii) but no special rights
- All allies contributed to the Roman army
- Roman colonies on ager publicus in strategic areas, new or at existing towns
  - Roman citizenship for town & individuals
- Beginning of the Roman road network (Appian Way in 312 BC)
The Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)
- Greek city-states ask Pyrrhus for help
- Pyrrhus was a fierce enemy but a “Pyrrhic Victory” in Italy
- Pyrrhus leaves -> Rome takes control of S Italy by 268 BC

The Punic Wars (264-201, 149-146 BC)

The First Punic War (264-241 BC), aka A New Hope
- Rome’s First Overseas Conflict
- Messana requests Carthaginians don’t leave
- Consul-elect Appius Claudius Pulcher convinces the Centuriate Assembly to go to war
- Romans build navy, learn how to fight at sea
- First Punic War on Sicily, in N Africa (failure), in Spain (Hamilcar Barca’s fierce opposition)
- War ends in 241 BC, effects:
  - Carthage to pay war indemnity
  - 227 BC, Sicily was Rome’s first province, Corsica and Sardinia's second province
  - Romans were more confident as imperial power
The Second Punic War (218-201 BC), aka The Empire Strikes Back
- Hannibal Barca rebuilds Carthaginian army in Spain
- Hannibal besieges Saguntum in S Spain, 219 BC -> Saguntum asks Romans for help but Carthaginians refuse Roman appeal, capture Saguntum
- Hannibal crosses over the Alps with Celtiberians, Numidians, 17 Elephants
Battle of Cannae, 216 BC
- Hero of the Republic: dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator
- Romans attack Syracuse (ends in 211 BC), attack Carthaginian army in Spain
Hero of the Republic: Publius Cornelius Scipio
- Aedile to Proconsul -> defeats Carthaginians in Spain, 206 BC
- Takes the fight to N Africa as consul in 205 BC, allies with King Masinissa of Numidians
- Defeats Hannibal at the Battle of Zama (201 BC)
- Rome expands into S Spain
The Third Punic War (149-146 BC) or ~~Return of the Jedi~~ “The New Empire Kills the Old One
- Carthage recovers, causes alarm for Rome
- Carthage violates treaty, Romans declare war
- Scipio Aemilianus reduces Carthage to ruined village
- The territory of Carthage becomes the Roman province of Africa

THE MACEDONIAN WARS

The Macedonian Wars (215-146 BC)
- Rome flexes as a new superpower
- First Macedonian War (215-205 BC) Phillip V Carthaginian ally against the eastward spread of Roman Influence
The Second Macedonian War (200-196 BC)
- Rhodes, Pergamum, Aetolian, and Achean Leagues request help against Philip V’s expansion into Thessaly, along N. Aegean
- War weariness at Rome
Hero of the republic: Titus Quinctius Flamininus (c. 227-174 BC) defeats Philip V at the Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC)
Philip V ordered to:
- Abandon involvement in S + N Aegean
- Pay war indemnity to Rome and its allies
- Reduce naval fleet
- Surrender sons as hostages
Isthmian Games 196 BC: Flamininus announces freedom for all Greek cities
The Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC)
- C. 185 BC Philip V invades Thrace, N Aegean coast
- Perseus becomes king (179 BC)
- Rome, Pergamum, some Thracians vs. Perseus, other Thracians, neighbors
- Hero of the Republic: Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul 168 BC, defeats Perseus at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), aftermath:
  - Macedonian strictly separated into 4 republics
- What does this approach say about Romans as an imperial power
The Fourth Macedonian War (149-148 BC)
- Philip Andriscus, the alleged son of Philip V, tries to reunite the Kingdom of Macedon
- Hero of the Republic: Quintus Caecilius Metellus ends the war and creates the province of Macedonia (148-146 BC)
Archaen League revolts against Rome (146 BC) -> L Mummius crushes the League, destroys Corinth, makes Achaea a province
What do the creation of the provinces of Macedonia, Africa, and Achae and the destruction of Carthage and Corinth, all in 146 BC, say about Roman Imperialism?

ROMAN PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Former consuls and praetors as provincial governors for one year = proconsuls and proprietors
- Minimal staff (quaestor, few legates, occasional legions + auxiliaries)
- Basic duties:
  - Defend province
  - High judge for disputes
  - Oversee tax collection by publicani
- Administration relied on local communities and elites
- Funded urbanization by local elites, oversaw foundations of colonies
Small provincial administration and great authority for senators far from Rome, problems?:
- Publicani (locals + Roman equestrians) as contracted private tax-collecting agencies
- Governors' desire to earn a triumph = made governors bold and failed to resolve domestic issues in favor of trying to conquer for the glory
- Expensive election to governorships =
Provincial delegations to Rome and a new extortion court (quaestio de repetundis) in 149 BC for corrupt governors
- Senators ran the court -> problems?

DOMESTIC EFFECTS OF EMPIRE: ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CHANGE

New lower upper class (equestrians) of wealthy businessmen (ex. Merchants, manufacturers, money lenders, tax collectors)
More personal and economic freedom for women by 2nd Cent. BC
- Sine Manu marriage preferred
- Could initiate legal proceedings (ex. Divorces, buying + selling property, making wills) BUT male guardian still required
Creation of Roman copper, silver, and gold coinage
- Earliest copper coin 289 BC (as) -> one of few small coins by 2nd Punic War
- Silver coin denarius becomes the monetary standard across the Mediterranean
- Roman coinage is a medium for conveying cultural + political messages through imagery (ex. Gods, famous Romans, buildings)
State + generals spend wealth from the empire on new buildings in Rome
- 2nd cent. BC projects draw extensively on Greek architecture
- Greater use of concrete, archways, vaulting
The wide popularity of Greek culture among wealthier Romans
- Greek as Rome’s lingua franca
- Greek literature reading groups (Scipionic Circle)
- First histories of Rome in Greek (ex. Fabius Pictor, Polybius)
- Roman theater performances based on Greek plays (ex. Livius Andronicus from Tarentum first Roman playwright, comedians Plautus + Terence)
- Greek philosophy (ex. Stoicism, Epicureanism)
Fear of Greek “contamination” of Roman morals (ex. M Porcius Cato “The Elder”)
What was a particularly big problem in Italy by the mid-2nd cent. BC? (hint: ager publicus and iugera)
- Latifundia: Big senatorial estates with much public land in them, undercutting citizen-soldiery
- Law: maximum estate size 500 iugera
Another big problem in Italy (hint: where do Rome’s Italian allies stand?)
- Discontent: a lot of fighting for not a lot of immediate benefit
- No citizenship for many of Roman Italic allies

TIBERIUS GRACCHUS (TRIBUNE 133 BC)

From a renowned senatorial family (Sempronii) -> mother Cornelia daughter of Scipio Africanus, sister Sempronia wife of Scipio Aemilianus
Recognition in the siege of Carthage, wars in Spain (quaestor)
133 BC, elected tribune, proposed land law:
- Proposes land redistribution: 500 iugera maximum enforce + 250 iuger for each of the first two sons
- Strike ONE from the Senate’s POV
Strike Two for Tiberius Gracchus is that he goes to the Trial by Tribe of People
- Tribune M. Octavius vetoes a bill (on Senate orders) -> Tiberius chosen over Octavius in a vote of confidence
- The proposal becomes law -> three-man commission established for land reform
Senate blocks land reform funding -> Tiberius proposes funds from the kingdom of Pergamon as farmer stimulus - Strike Three
Tiberius seeks tribunate for 132 BC, and trouble ensues…
- Fulvius Flaccus reports a supposed plot
Senator and pontifex maximus P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica leads mob
What happens to Tiberius and his followers? To Nasica?
What is the message for the future?
Aftermath of Tiberius’ tribunate:
- Optimates vs populares
- Land Redistribution?
- Fulvius Flaccus (consul 125 BC) and Rome’s Italic Allies
  - Praetor Opimius destroys Fragellae

GAIUS GRACCHUS (Tribune 123-122 BC)

Quaestor in Sardinia 126 BC -> resigned, returned to Rome
123 BC, elected as tribune; proposals?
- Renewed land distribution
- Extortion court reform: equestrians as judges
- Cheaper food/grain for plebeians
- Full citizenship to Latins, Latin rights to Italic allies
- Road building for jobs
- Soldiers get uniform and equipment from state
Gaius reelected 122 BC with Fulvius Flaccus
Senators support M Livius Drusus as an opponent, tactic?
Gauis not reelected tribune 121 BC, fears for himself and his laws -> occupies Aventine Hill with Flaccus and armed followers
- Violence and senatus consultum ultimum = consul Opimius tasked to save Republic
- Gaius, Fulvius, allies (over 3,000 people) killed in and around Roman Forum
Aftermath of Gaius Gracchus’ murder?
- Opimius?
- The Senators?
- Land Redistribution?
- Civil Discourse

ROMAN RELIGION

Romans polytheistic and animistic
Main deities shared with Greek pantheon (Olympians and affiliated gods)
- Roman gods linked to Greek ones based on shared powers, traits = interpretatio
- Epithets for particular powers (ex. Mars Ultor)
- Main deities personified in literature, art
Many other Roman gods elements of nature or customs that early Romans worshipped for success in daily life = animism
- Ex. Mars orig. Agricultural deity, Jupiter god of storms, Juno goddess of fertility, Janus the god of doorways, household gods (Lares and Penates)
Augustine of Hippo, mid-late 4th century AD on Roman gods:
Romans willing to adopt new gods:
- Roman gods identified with foreign gods across the Empire (interpretatio)
  - Ex. Mars Toutatis, Jupiter Ammon
- Generals “called out” deities from enemy cities (evocatio)
- New gods brought to Rome to reverse misfortune
  - Ex. 205 BC, Cybele from Asia on the instruction of Sibylline books to defeat Carthage
- Deification (ex. Romulus, Quirinus, Julius Caesar/Divius Iulius)
Why worship?
- For Health, Safety, Success
- Important to:
  - Acknowledge all pertinent gods
  - Satisfy them with proper worship
  - = cultus (constant attention to gods, correct worship)
- Place of religion to safeguard individual and the community = Roman polytheism and the state religion = Pietas
- Lack of careful, proper worship could be bad -> guarded or harsh treatment of certain religion, ex.:
  - Cult of Bacchus: followers frenzies, too numerous -> outlawed briefly across Italy c. 186 BC
  - Judaism: monotheistic -> Jews to offer prayers, sacrifices for Roman state
  - Christianity: monotheism, skeptical of state events, no sacrifices -> treasonous
- Offerings and prayers -> acts of exchange (quid pro quo)
  - According to traditional, set procedures
  - No personal divine-human relationships necessary
- Four kinds of offering:
  - Blood Sacrifices -> bigger animal, the better kudos with the gods (esp. suovetaurilia)
  - Libation, pouring out a liquid for the gods
  - Expensive goodies: ex. Jewelry, armor, statues, temples, stoas
  - Public games
- “Colleges” of priesthoods advised on and conducted rituals
  - Priesthoods separate from political positions but held together
- Big State priesthoods:
  - Pontifices and Pontifex Maximus: 15 by 1st Century BC, advised on proper procedure for offerings and prayers, enforced the calendar
  - Flaminies: 15 by 1st Century BC, in charge of specific cults
  - Vestal Virginis (6): highly respected, cared for eternal flame of Vesta
  - Augurs (auspicy): 15 by 1st century BC, watching and interpreting flight and eating patterns of birds
  - Haruspices - examined animal entrails for signs; Etruscan divination practice
- Festivals: Large public events (offerings, prayers, games) usually several days in honor of particular traditions, gods
  - Ex. Regifugium, celebrating the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus
  - Ex. Saturnalia (aka Pagan Christmas) enslaved people “masters” for a day
- Morals loosely associated with Roman religion, latterly focused on form and frequency of worship
  - BUT clear sense of Roman Virtues, ex.
    - Pietas
    - Virtus
    - Pudicitia
    - Clementia
    - Imperium
    - Fides
    - Justitia

ROMAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Necessary elements of the Roman sanctuary: altar + sacred precinct
Temples as houses of the gods, more common and ornate over time
Roman temple developed from Etruscan temple architecture:
- High Podium
- Tall staircase
- Deep front columnar porch
- One to three cult chambers
- Decorative engaged half columns at temple sides or side colonnaded wings
- Pitched roof with pediment decorations, frieze course
The most popular column order was Corinthian

GAIUS MARIUS: HERO, INNOVATOR, AND THREAT

Three threats in the late 2nd cent. BC:
- Migration of Celts Cimbri, Teutones, and others into S Gaul in 113 BC and next few years
  - Repeated Roman military defeat (109, 107, 105 BC)
- War in Numidia vs. King Jugurtha beg. 111 BC.
- Slave Revolt in Sicily beg. 104 BC
Gaius Marius, equestrian novus homo, war hero in Spain (1305 BC), legate in Numidia -> Consul 107 BC, gets command in Numidia through Concilium Plebis
Gauis Marius the innovator:
- Raised army of landless plebeians AND responsible for their payment (salary + land) -> problem
- New fighting arrangement, way of equipping soldiers = “Marius’ Mules”
Marius successful against Jugurtha -> legate L. Cornelius Sulla arranges Jugurtha’s defeat (106 BC)
Marius defeats Cimbri, Teutones, Tigurini in Gaul (102 BC), Teutones in Italy (101 BC)
Manius Aquillius squashes Sicilian slave revolt (100 BC)
Gaius Marius as hero and innovator BUT tradition defying:
- Fixed military eligibility problem outside of law
- Elected consul multiple times (107,104-100 BC) through Concilium Plebis -> problems?
Senate reluctant to grant land to Marius’ army -> Marius turns to tribune allies + Concilium Plebis and camps army near Rome
- Later, allied tribunes freely use violence -> Senate declares Senatus Consultum Ultimum

THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88 BC)

Increase in dissatisfaction among Italian allies (socii)
- Italians expelled from Rome 95 BC
- Ally Tribune Drusus proposes Italian citizenship 91 BC, mysteriously murdered
Revolt of the Socii
- Citizenship as “carrot” for reconciliation (Julian + Plautian Papirian Laws)
- Revolt ends 88 BC, Samnites hold out
- Roman Citizenship throughout Italy
88 BC, revolt in Asia over Roman mismanagement -> King Mithridates VI of Pontus invades Asia, kills thousands of Roman citizens
L. Cornelius Sulla elected to defeat Mithridates, raises army of landless plebeians
- BUT Marius gets command through allied tribunes + concillium plebis
Marius with loyal senators + army of loyal veterans retakes Rome 87 BC, executes opposing senators
Sulla defeats Mithridates 83 BC, returns wealthy with veteran army, retakes Rome
- Proscriptions of senatorial opponents
Sulla dictator for “restoring the Republic” -> institutes optimate reforms, examples?
Sulla retires 78 BC, dies next year BUT?
Summary: Problems of the Late Republic?

WHO WAS IN THE ROMAN ARMY?

Originally, all adult, male Roman citizen landowners
Equipment determined by wealth class (Centuriate Assembly):
- Knights: 12 centuries, wealthiest class -> calvary
- First class: 100,000 asses, 80 centuries -> bronze helmet, round shield, greaves, breastplate, sword, spear
- Second Class: 100,000-75,000, 20 centuries -> no breastplate, long shield
- Third Class: at least 50,00 asses, 20 centuries -> no greaves
- Fourth Class: at least 25,000 asses. 20 centuries -> spear and javelin
- Fifth Class: at least 11,000 asses, 30 centuries -> slings and stones
- Sixth Class: less than 11,000 asses, 1 century -> no military service
Armies drafted for particular wars
- Usual 6 year service length
- Maximum 16 years before age 46
Auxiliaries: non-citizen allied troops > or = size of Roman armies
- All inhabitants of Empire citizens in 212 AD
Wars more frequent, battlefronts more numerous in 2nd century BC
- Problem? Solution?
Gauis Gracchus (123 BC): State pays for soldier’s uniform + equipment
Reforms of Marius
Slight changes in legion size, organization, and soldiers’ equipment 4th-1st centuries BC
Time of Augustus, legion = c. 5,000 men, 25 legions across the Empire
Military Leadership:
- Led by a Centurion per century - experienced enlisted soldiers
- 6 military tribunes for the 10 cohorts - young equestrian or senatorial men
- Legate per legion - young senator chosen by governor
- Governor (propraetor or proconsul) in charge of all legions in a province, advised by consuls and Senate
Legionary’s standard equipment:
- Javelin (pilum) x 2
- Short sword (gladius)
- Long, curved rectangular shield
- Helmet with cheek guards
- Cuirass of flexible of iron strips
- Tunic, cleated sandals
- Rucksack with c. 3 days rations, rope, tools, basket = c. 60 lbs. (“Marius’ Mules”)

THE LIFE OF A ROMAN SOLDIERS

Many duties besides fighting, particular building activities
Military camps (castra) -> mostly temporary, some permanent, some become cities
- Standard plan with standard features
What else did Roman soldiers do?
Military standards and horns as important reference points and signals
- Standard sacred (ex. Eagle standard only standard after Marius)
Fines, property confiscation, flogging, death as disciplinary actions
Large-scale disobedience = possible decimation
Devotion to duty highly celebrated -> Remember Cincinnatus
- Ex. golden crown for first to scaled wall of besieged town; drinking bowl for stripping dead enemy of his army
- Military triumph back at Rome

ROMAN SLAVERY & SPARTACUS

Early Rome (until 4th century BC) -> Poor Romans
Territorial expansion across Italy (4th - 3rd centuries BC) -> prisoners of war
Territorial expansion across the Mediterranean -> prisoners of war (ex. Spain, Gaul, Germania, Africa, Greece, Asia, etc.)
The enslaved were given names based on character traits, skills, or origins
By late 1st cent. BC, the population of the enslaved in Rome and Italy high
Slavery vital to Roman society
- Enslaved people in households, private, business, public works, farming, mining, and arena
Best case scenario: work for a rich Roman family
Worst case scenarios: farmhand on a large estate, gladiator, miner
All enslaved people property, bought and sold commodities, fairly expensive to buy, cheaper to rent
The enslaved treated according to their master wishes; the bad:
- Collars, shackles, brands
- Beatings for disobedience
- Sexual harassment
- Before 1st century AD, owners could kill their slaves -> made the prerogative of courts
Revolts of the enslaved always a fear for Romans -> string of revolts 2nd-1st centuries BC
- Ex. Revolt in Sicily 104-100 BC
Also, Revolt of Spartacus (73 -71 BC)
M. Licinius Crassus (Mr. Money Bags) defeats Spartacus and co. in S Italy, crucifies 600 men along Appian Way to Rome
Gn. Pompeius Magnus kills the remainder of Sparticus’ army
Why does the story of Spartacus live on in Roman memory?