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modern middle east
Class 1:
What does monotheistic mean? - Believing in one god
What religions are monotheistic? - Islam, Judaism, Christianity
— Why is Jerusalem important to all 3?
Judaism: Site of ancient Jewish temples - central part of Jewish history
Christianity: Jesus was crucified and resurrected there
Islam: Where the Prophet Mohammed is believed to have ascended to heaven (the Al-Aqsa Mosque is there, mosque in Jerusalem)
STUDY MAP
Class 2:
The Ottoman Empire (1299 - 1923): one of the most powerful empires in history, especially in the Middle East
The Ottoman Empire started in Anatolia (now modern-day Turkey)
Made up of turkish muslims who followed Sunni Islam (the largest branch of Islam, 85-90% of muslims worldwide)
Ottoman Empire Major Achievements:
1453: Conquered Constantinople (capital of the Byzantine Empire - a Christian empire)
This city was later renamed Istanbul
Greek Christians were angry at Western Europe for not helping defend the city
Greek Christians:
defeated by the Ottomans
The Byzantine Empire was taken over
After that, many Greek Christians lived under Ottoman Muslim rule for centuries
The Ottoman Empire expanded and took over much of the Middle East & southeastern Europe (parts of the Balkans)
The Ottoman Sultan (the ruler) also became the Caliph, meaning he was the religious ruler of all muslims (at least among the Sunnis)
All muslims:
Belief in one god (Allah)
Use of the Qur’an (Islam's Holy Book)
Follow the five pillars of Islam (prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, etc;
What makes Sunni different from Shia?
The split happened after Prophet Mohammed died in 632 CE
The groups split because they were arguing over who should lead the muslim community
Sunni Muslims believed the leader (called the Caliph) should be chosen by the community - someone qualified not necessarily from Mohammeds family
The first Caliph was Abu Bakr (a close friend of Mohammed)
Shia muslims believed the leader called Imam should be a direct descendant of Mohammed, starting with his cousin/son-in-law Ali
Sunni in History:
The Ottoman Empire was Sunni, and its rulers called themselves the Caliphs (spiritual leaders of all Muslims
Most muslim majority countries today, like Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan, are Sunni
The Ottoman Empire reached its peak (zenith - another word for peak) under Suleiman the Magnificent (10th ruler) in the 1500s (16th century)
He improved laws, culture, architecture, and military power
Seen as one of the greatest Ottoman rulers
Hagia Sophia (also spelt Hagia Sofia)
Originally a Christian cathedral (bishop - high-ranking church leader has their official seat or authority in Constantinople (remember this is now known as Istanbul)
But this turned into a mosque when the Ottomans took over
Shows how the Ottomans blended old Christian spaces with Islamic Culture
Imports from the Middle East
goods and cultural influences (like spices, textiles, and art) that the empire traded or shared with Europe and beyond
The Middle East was tied to global trade even before modern globalization
What is Periodization?: How we divide and label time in history
Time Terms:
BCE: Before Common Era (same as BC = before Christ) – Years before year 0
CE: Common Era (Same as AD = Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of our Lord) = Years after 0
BCE/BC - Past/counting backwards
CE/AD - More recent counting forward
Centuries are always one number ahead of the actual year range.
Year Range | Century Name |
0–99 CE | 1st Century CE |
100–199 CE | 2nd Century CE |
1900–1999 CE | 20th Century CE |
2000–2099 CE | 21st Century CE |
100–1 BCE | 1st Century BCE |
200–101 BCE | 2nd Century BCE |
There is no “zero” century. It goes from:
1st Century BCE → 1st Century CE
Example:
50 CE = 1st Century CE
75 BCE = 1st Century BCE
What is the Fertile Crescent?
The Fertile Crescent is a curved region in the Middle East where some of the earliest human civilizations began.
It’s called "fertile" because the land there was really good for farming, thanks to big rivers that provided water.
🗺 Where is it?
It stretches through parts of:
Iraq
Syria
Lebanon
Israel/Palestine
Jordan
Egypt
Turkey
It includes famous rivers like:
The Tigris and Euphrates (Iraq)
The Nile (Egypt)
If you look at a map, it forms a crescent shape 🌙 — like a banana or half-moon
🏛 Why is it Important?
Known as the "Cradle of Civilization."
The first farming, cities, writing systems, and empires began there.
Home to ancient places like Mesopotamia, Babylon, and Ancient Egypt.
Jericho — One of the Oldest Cities
Jericho is a city located in the modern-day West Bank (Palestinian Territories).
Around 10,000 BCE, people began living there permanently, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world.
This period is part of the Neolithic Era (New Stone Age), when humans started to:
Farm plants and animals
Build houses and villages instead of just hunting and gathering
Develop early technologies like pottery and tools
🌟 Why is Jericho Important?
It shows the shift from nomadic life to settled communities.
Archaeologists have found ancient walls and towers there — some of the earliest examples of organized construction.
Jericho is part of the history of the Fertile Crescent region, where civilization first grew.
Achaemenid (Persian) Empire (550–330 BCE)
✅ What was it?
The Achaemenid Empire was the first Persian Empire.
Founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 BCE.
It became one of the largest empires in ancient history.
✅ Where did it stretch?
From modern-day Iran (Persia).
Across the Middle East, including parts of:
Egypt
Mesopotamia (Iraq)
Turkey
Parts of Central Asia
Parts of India
✅ Famous rulers:
Cyrus the Great — known for his tolerance and smart leadership.
Darius I — expanded the empire and improved government systems.
Xerxes I — famous for fighting the Greeks in the Persian Wars.
✅ Why is it important?
Created one of the first organized governments with a system of provinces (called satrapies).
Built impressive infrastructure like the Royal Road to improve communication.
Allowed religious and cultural diversity in the empire.
Influenced later empires in the region.
Alexander the Great (4th century BCE)
✅ Who was he?
A Macedonian king (from northern Greece).
Student of the philosopher Aristotle.
Became king at age 20 after his father, King Philip II, was assassinated.
✅ What did he do?
Went on a massive military campaign and conquered a huge empire.
His empire stretched from Greece all the way to Egypt and into the Middle East and parts of India.
He defeated the Achaemenid Persian Empire (the one we talked about earlier).
✅ Why is he important for the Middle East?
His conquests spread Greek culture throughout the Middle East — this period is called the Hellenistic Era.
Cities like Alexandria in Egypt were founded and became centers of learning and culture.
His empire broke apart after his death, but his impact on the region’s culture and politics lasted for centuries.
The Roman Empire (27 BCE – around 476 CE in the West)
✅ What was it?
A huge empire centered on the city of Rome (in modern Italy).
Started as a republic, then became an empire ruled by emperors.
At its height, it controlled large parts of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.
✅ The Romans and the Middle East
The Romans conquered many Middle Eastern territories, including:
Judea (modern-day Israel/Palestine)
Parts of Syria
Egypt
Mesopotamia (at times)
They built roads, cities, and fortifications to control the region.
The city of Jerusalem was important in Roman times, especially because of the Jewish population and later early Christians.
✅ Significant events:
Roman rule brought stability and infrastructure but also conflict, especially with local groups like the Jews.
The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE was a major event for Jewish history.
Christianity, which began in the Roman province of Judea, eventually spread and became the empire’s official religion under Emperor Constantine in the 4th century CE.
Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE)
✅ What was it?
The Sasanian Empire was the last pre-Islamic Persian empire before the rise of Islam.
It replaced the Parthian Empire and was founded by Ardashir I in 224 CE.
It was a powerful rival to the Byzantine Empire in the East.
✅ Where was it?
Centered in modern-day Iran.
Controlled parts of the Middle East, including:
Mesopotamia (Iraq)
Parts of the Arabian Peninsula
Parts of Central Asia
✅ Culture and Religion:
The state religion was Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions.
Known for its art, architecture, and sophisticated administration.
Was a major center of trade and culture on the Silk Road.
✅ Historical importance:
Frequently fought wars with the Byzantine Empire over control of the Middle East.
Weakened by these long wars and internal issues before the rise of Islam.
The empire fell to the early Islamic Caliphates around 651 CE during the Muslim conquests.
Jews and the Israelite Kingdoms
✅ Israel & Judah (930–587 BCE)
After the Israelites settled in the land, their kingdom split into two:
Israel (Northern Kingdom)
Judah (Southern Kingdom)
These were early Jewish kingdoms in the ancient Middle East.
✅ King Solomon’s Temple (First Temple)
Built by King Solomon around 957 BCE.
It was the central place of worship for the Israelites.
Important religious and cultural symbol for the Jewish people.
✅ Destruction and Exile
In 587 BCE, the Babylonians conquered Judah.
They destroyed Solomon’s Temple.
Many Jews were taken captive—this is called the Babylonian Captivity or Exile.
✅ Return from Exile
In 538 BCE, Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire conquered Babylon.
He allowed the Jews to return to their homeland.
The Jews began to rebuild their community and later rebuilt the Second Temple.
Seljuk Turks (Late 1000s)
Came from Central Asia (modern-day area around Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan).
They were Turkish-speaking Sunni Muslims.
Took control of much of Anatolia (now Turkey).
Important because they paved the way for later Turkish empires, including the Ottomans.
2. The Crusades (12th–13th centuries)
A series of military campaigns by Christian knights from Europe.
Goal: To take or reclaim the Holy Land, especially Jerusalem, which was important for Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
Jerusalem was captured by Crusaders in 1099, but was later retaken by Muslim forces led by Saladin in 1187.
In 1204, Crusaders attacked and sacked Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire’s capital—this worsened relations between Eastern and Western Christians.
The Crusades caused long-term conflict and mistrust between Christians and Muslims in the region.
3. Mongol Invasions (13th century)
The Mongols, a nomadic group from Central Asia led by Genghis Khan and his successors, invaded large parts of Asia and the Middle East.
They sacked Baghdad in 1258, ending the Abbasid Caliphate and causing massive destruction.
The Mongols were eventually stopped by the Mamluks (warrior-slaves who ruled Egypt) in 1260, preventing further Mongol expansion into Egypt and North Africa.
Abbasid Dynasty (750–1258 CE)
✅ Who were they?
The Abbasids were a major Islamic dynasty that came after the Umayyads.
They overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE.
Their rule is often called the Golden Age of Islam.
✅ Where and when?
Capital city: Baghdad (modern-day Iraq).
Ruled much of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Central Asia.
Their power lasted until 1258 CE, when the Mongols sacked Baghdad.
✅ Why are they important?
They made Baghdad a huge center of learning, culture, science, and trade.
Scholars in the Abbasid era made advances in:
Mathematics (algebra)
Medicine
Astronomy
Philosophy
Literature
The Abbasids also helped spread Islam and Arabic culture widely.
✅ What happened to them?
The empire slowly weakened over time.
Local rulers gained more independence.
Eventually, the Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258, ending their central authority.
Muslims & Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE)
✅ Who was Muhammad?
Born in Mecca, a city in the Arabian Peninsula.
Lived from 570 to 632 CE.
Learned about Judaism and Christianity, which influenced his teachings.
✅ Revelations and the Koran
In 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving messages from God through the Angel Gabriel.
These messages became the Koran (Qur’an), the holy book of Islam.
In 621 CE, Muhammad had the Night Journey:
He traveled to Jerusalem.
Climbed a ladder to heaven.
Led the prophets in prayer.
Because of this, Jerusalem is the third holiest city in Islam after Mecca and Medina.
✅ Migration and Conquests
In 622 CE, Muhammad moved from Mecca to Medina (called the Hijra).
This marks the start of the Islamic calendar.
In 630 CE, Muhammad and his followers returned to Mecca.
They cleansed the Kaaba (a sacred cube-shaped structure) of pagan idols.
The Kaaba became Islam’s holiest site, central to Muslim worship.
What is the connection, and why is it historically significant?
The Roman Empire & Christianity
A: Approaches to the question may vary. The key point is that Christianity grew within the Roman Empire and eventually became the empire’s official religion, enabling Christianity to spread far beyond the Middle East.
The Middle East to 1800 — Dynasties & Islam
1. Umayyad Dynasty (661–750 CE)
The first major Islamic dynasty after the Prophet Muhammad’s death.
Expanded the empire widely — from Spain in the west to Central Asia in the east.
Their capital was initially in Damascus (Syria).
2. Abbasid Dynasty (750–1258 CE)
They overthrew the Umayyads.
Moved the capital to Baghdad (modern-day Iraq).
Their rule is called the Golden Age of Islam (roughly 800–1200 CE).
Baghdad became the intellectual and cultural center of the world during this period.
Important Islamic Terms:
Caliph: The religious and political leader considered the successor of Prophet Muhammad. For Sunnis, the Caliph’s role is to protect the community’s interests.
Umma: The global Muslim community — all Muslims worldwide.
Ulama: Muslim religious scholars who interpret Islamic law and teachings.
Jahiliyya: The "state of ignorance," referring to Arabia before the rise of Islam.
Key Religious Texts & Concepts:
Koran (Qur’an): The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God revealed to Muhammad.
Sunna: The practices and teachings of Muhammad and his followers, considered a model for living.
Hadith: Collections of quotes and stories about Muhammad’s words and actions used to guide Muslim life.
The Five Pillars of Islam (fundamental duties of all Muslims):
Declaration of Faith (Shahada): Saying and believing “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His prophet.”
Prayer (Salat): Worshipping five times a day facing Mecca.
Charity (Zakat): Giving to those in need.
Fasting (Sawm): During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to sunset.
Pilgrimage (Hajj): Making a trip to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if possible.
Key Concepts in Islamic Civilization:
Jihad: Means “holy struggle” or effort in the path of God. It can be a personal struggle to live rightly or a physical defense of Islam.
Sharia: Islamic law, made by combining verses from the Koran with legal commentaries developed mainly in the 800s-900s.
Taqlid: Following the authoritative interpretations of Islamic texts passed down from medieval religious scholars.
Schools of Muslim Law (different ways Islamic law is practiced):
Maliki School: Mostly in North and West Africa.
Hanafi School: Common in Ottoman lands (Turkey and surroundings) and India.
Shafii School: East Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines.
Hanbali School: Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia and nearby).
Jafari School: Shia-majority areas, mainly Iran.
Sunni-Shia Split (a major division in Islam):
Sunni Islam: About 90% of Muslims worldwide; about 70% in the Middle East.
Shia Islam: About 10% globally; about 30% in the Middle East.
The split happened over who should lead after Prophet Muhammad died:
Shia Muslims believed the leader (Caliph) should be Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law.
Sunni Muslims supported Abu Bakar, Muhammad’s father-in-law.
The first four leaders after Muhammad, called the “Four Rightly Guided Caliphs,” were:
Abu Bakar ➤ Umar ➤ Uthman ➤ Ali
Why does this matter?
Like Christianity’s divisions (Catholics and Protestants), Sunni and Shia differences have lasted for centuries.
These divisions are sometimes politicized and have caused conflicts in the region.
The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923) Overview
Origins:
The Ottoman Empire began with the Seljuk Turks, a Sunni Muslim group from Central Asia. Their base was in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).Expansion:
They took over the Byzantine Empire’s last stronghold by capturing Constantinople in 1453 — a huge turning point.
The Ottoman Sultan claimed the Caliphate (religious leadership for Muslims) officially in 1517.
They controlled large parts of the Balkans (Southeast Europe) and much of the Middle East for over 400 years.
Military Actions:
They besieged Vienna twice (1529 and 1683), trying to push into Europe, but these attempts failed.
Golden Age:
Their peak (called the zenith) was under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, who was known for strengthening the empire’s laws, culture, and military.
Ottoman Policies on Religious Minorities
The Ottomans tolerated Jews and Christians, calling them "people of the book" (religions with holy scriptures).
They used the Millet System, which:
Allowed religious minority communities (like Jews and Christians) to govern themselves in some areas:
Their own schools
Social services
Legal matters
Religious affairs
This system helped the empire manage its diverse population and keep peace.
Challenges in the 17th and 18th centuries (not on slide but relevant)
The empire faced military pressure from European powers.
Internal struggles like corruption, economic problems, and difficulty managing its vast territory.
Technological and military advances in Europe began to outpace Ottoman capabilities.
Rise of rival empires (like Persia) and nationalist movements within the empire.
Safavid Empire (1500–1722)
Location:
Controlled the area of present-day Iran and some surrounding regions.Neighbors:
Their expansion was limited by powerful neighbors, like the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, so they couldn’t grow much beyond their borders.Religious Impact:
Shah Ishmael I, the founder, converted much of the population to Shia Islam. This is important because before this, many people in the region were Sunni or followed other beliefs.
Over time, the Shia Ulama (religious scholars) gained more influence in Safavid society and government.
Cultural Center:
Cities like Isfahan (sometimes spelled Ishafan) became important cultural and political centers under the Safavids.
Why it matters:
The Safavid Empire helped shape modern-day Iran’s religious identity as mainly Shia Muslim.
Their rivalry with the Sunni Ottoman Empire was a major source of conflict in the region.
Gunpowder Empires
The term Gunpowder Empires refers to powerful states that used gunpowder weapons (like cannons and muskets) to build and expand their empires in the early modern period.
The three main Gunpowder Empires in the Middle East and South Asia were:
Ottoman Empire
Safavid Empire (Persia/Iran)
Mughal Empire (India)
Shah Nader and the Peacock Throne
Shah Nader was a ruler of Persia (Safavid successor state) in the 18th century.
He took the Peacock Throne from the Mughal Empire in India — the Peacock Throne was a famous symbol of Mughal power and wealth.
This event shows the power struggle and shifting control between these Gunpowder Empires.
Qajar Dynasty (Persia), 1796–1925
Capital: Tehran
The Qajars made Tehran their capital city.Control:
They didn’t have strong control beyond Tehran and its surroundings — their authority was limited.Goal:
Tried to modernize and build a stronger state during the 19th century, but faced many challenges.
Ottoman, Safavid, & Qajar Empires: Military Patronage States
These empires were ruled by a military elite who controlled the army and economic power.
Taxpayers (non-military subjects): ordinary people worked the land or did business, producing wealth that could be taxed.
Decentralized rule:
The central rulers gave land grants to regional military leaders.
Ottomans called these grants timars
Persians called them tiyual
In return, these local leaders provided soldiers or military support.
Tax Farming:
Instead of collecting taxes directly, the government gave tax collection rights to regional leaders called ayans.
The ayans collected taxes, gave a fixed amount to the government, and kept the extra for themselves.
Military Slaves:
Ottomans: Devshirme system — Christian boys taken from families, converted to Islam, and trained as elite soldiers (Janissaries).
Safavids: Ghilman — military slaves captured from regions like the Caucasus, loyal to the Shah.
Legal system:
Laws combined Islamic law and dynastic (royal) laws.Religion:
Served as a unifying force in these diverse empires.
Gunpowder Empires in the 17th–18th centuries
(Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals)
These empires were once powerful because of their use of gunpowder weapons.
But during this time, they started losing control over global trade routes.
As a result, they became more peripheral (less central) in the world economy.
Their economies shifted to mainly supplying raw materials and cash crops like opium, tobacco, and cotton to Europe.
Challenges
Europe was growing stronger, both economically and militarily.
The Ottoman Empire and others lost territories to European powers.
They also faced the challenge of European nationalism, which inspired:
Rebellions and revolutions inside their empires during the 19th century.
The Great Game
A struggle mainly between Britain and Russia for influence and control in Central Asia and the Middle East during the 19th century.
This competition created more external pressure on the Ottoman and Persian empires.
Key Question (BQ)
How was the Middle East transformed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and what challenges did the empires face?
The Middle East shifted from being a major power to a more marginal role in global trade.
Empires faced internal challenges like rebellion and weakening control.
They faced external threats from rising European powers trying to take land and influence.
Question 1:
Do you think Evliya Chelebi is exaggerating his depiction of Istanbul (Constantinople) or is it just an accurate, if enthusiastic, description? Why?
Evliya Chelebi was a famous Ottoman traveler and writer known for his detailed accounts.
His descriptions are often very positive and enthusiastic, highlighting the beauty, wealth, and size of Istanbul.
So, it’s likely a mix: his description reflects real grandeur but with some exaggeration to glorify the city.
Writers like him aimed to impress their readers and celebrate their empire’s greatness.
Question 2:
Why do you imagine the casting of cannons involved such a ceremony?
Cannons were very important military technology, key to defending and expanding the empire.
Casting a cannon was a complex and expensive process.
The ceremony showed respect for this power, boosted morale, and symbolized strength and unity.
It was also a way for the Sultan to demonstrate his military might and divine favor.
Question 3:
What does this source tell us about the military and strategic situation of the Ottoman Empire at that time?
The quote says Sultan Suleiman was concerned about matching the military power of the Germans, who excelled at artillery.
The Ottomans recruited skilled artillerymen from different countries, showing they were open to foreign expertise.
This means the empire was actively working to keep up with or surpass European military technology.
It suggests the empire was strategic, adaptable, and keen on maintaining military strength through international collaboration.
About the Quote:
“These Germans be a race of strong, warlike, cunning, devilish, coarse infidels, whom, excelling as they did in artillery, Sultan Suleyman endeavored to get equal with by recruiting gunners and artillerymen from all countries with the offer of rich rewards.”
Shows recognition of European military skills (especially Germans in artillery).
Sultan Suleiman took practical steps to build Ottoman artillery power.
Highlights international competition and diplomacy — the Ottomans attracted experts from various places by offering rewards.
Demonstrates the importance of artillery and technology in the empire’s military strategy
Question 1: Why does Karahasan liken Sarajevo to Jerusalem and Babylon?
Sarajevo, Jerusalem, and Babylon are all cities with a long history of diverse religious and ethnic groups living together.
Karahasan probably compares them because these cities have experienced conflict and coexistence at the same time.
Each city is a symbol of cultural and religious pluralism, but also of struggle and war.
Think of Sarajevo as a modern example of a city with many layers of history and people, just like Jerusalem and Babylon.
Question 2: What does Karahasan mean by Sarajevo being “open and closed”? How does he find understanding in this contradiction?
“Open and closed” means:
Sarajevo is open because people from different groups interact, trade, and live side by side.
It is closed because of tensions, boundaries, or divisions between communities.
Karahasan shows that even though there are conflicts and divisions, people still find ways to live together.
Examples might include neighbors from different religions helping each other or small conflicts that don’t break the whole city apart.
This shows the complex reality of coexistence—it’s not perfect harmony, but also not total separation.
Question 3: Karahasan wrote in 1993 during the siege of Sarajevo but doesn’t blame the attackers by nationality, ethnicity, or religion. Why?
He’s emphasizing that blaming an entire group for violence isn’t helpful or fair.
Karahasan focuses on humanity beyond ethnic or religious labels.
He may be trying to show that the conflict is more complicated than just "us vs. them."
His message encourages understanding and seeing people as individuals, not just members of a group.
Quote about the Charshiya
The Charshiya is a central marketplace or neighborhood in Sarajevo.
People from many groups (Jews, Muslims, Serbs, Greeks) live and interact here.
The quote says they can be friends, enemies, collaborators, or rivals, but through all that, their shared humanity and culture shine through.
It shows the messy but real reality of multicultural life.
Is Sarajevo’s pluralism unique?
Not completely unique—many cities, like in Canada or Western countries, are multicultural and have diverse communities living together.
However, Sarajevo’s history is special because:
It’s had centuries of Ottoman influence, where diverse religious communities were often governed under one empire.
The city’s pluralism survived intense conflict like sieges and wars.
In Canadian cities, multiculturalism is often celebrated with policies and more peaceful coexistence, while Sarajevo’s pluralism has been shaped by more difficult and violent history.
Clues about Ottoman Empire life:
The reading hints that the Ottoman Empire allowed different religious and ethnic groups to live side by side.
This system, called the “millet” system, gave groups some autonomy but kept them under Ottoman rule.
That’s why cities like Sarajevo had a mix of religions and cultures living together for centuries.
How was the Middle East transformed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and what challenges did the Middle Eastern Empires face?
Transformations:
The Ottoman and Persian (Safavid/Qajar) Empires functioned as “Military Patronage States.”
This means a military elite, including military slaves (like the Ottoman Janissaries and Persian Ghilman), held key power and controlled much of the empire’s security and economy.
These empires were decentralized.
Regional leaders (ayans or provincial governors) had significant autonomy.
The central government relied on tax farming—local leaders collected taxes and sent a fixed amount to the state, keeping the rest.
Rulers often governed through prestige, negotiation, and personal influence rather than absolute control.
Legal systems were a blend of Islamic law and dynastic laws, reflecting the religious and traditional authority.
Religion served as a unifying factor across the diverse populations.
Challenges:
The empires began to lose their dominance in global trade and became peripheral suppliers of raw materials rather than industrial powers.
They faced internal decentralization and weakening central authority due to regional leaders’ autonomy and tax farming.
European powers grew stronger, both militarily and economically, threatening the empires’ territories and influence.
The empires struggled to adapt to new military technologies and administrative reforms necessary for modernization.
These pressures would lead to calls for reform and adaptation in the 19th century to try to maintain sovereignty and power.
How did the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Persia try to change themselves in the 19th century?
They pursued Defensive Developmentalism, which means they aimed to strengthen their states to better manage internal problems and resist external threats (especially from European powers). They tried to modernize their military, centralize government control, reform taxes, improve education, and build infrastructure.
Examples of Defensive Developmentalism:
Military strengthening: Modernizing armies, sometimes with European help and advisors.
Tax reform: Trying to reduce the power of local tax collectors and bring more revenue directly to the central government.
Education reforms: Creating new schools and curricula to train skilled administrators and modern thinkers.
Infrastructure projects: Building railways, telegraphs, roads to improve control and economic development.
Foreign investments and concessions: Allowing Europeans to invest in resources and infrastructure to bring capital and technology.
What could go wrong with Defensive Developmentalism?
Costly military modernization: Reliance on Europe for weapons and expertise led to huge debts.
Resistance from local leaders: Tax reform threatened powerful regional rulers and tax farmers, causing unrest.
Education reforms backfire: New educated classes sometimes became critical of the government and pushed for political change.
Foreign control risks: Debt and concessions often gave European powers greater influence and control, leading to imperialism and loss of sovereignty.
Nationalism and revolts: The empire’s diverse populations started demanding autonomy or independence, fueled by new ideas and weakening central power.
Ali Pasha of Ioannina (1740–1822)
Who was he?
Ali Pasha was an Ottoman Albanian ruler and powerful regional governor (Pasha) of Ioannina, a city in present-day northwestern Greece.What did he do?
He ruled semi-independently from the Ottoman central government during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, controlling much of Epirus and parts of Albania and Greece. Ali Pasha built his own military power, administered his territory with strong authority, and engaged in diplomacy and warfare to expand his influence.Why is he important?
Ali Pasha’s rule is a classic example of decentralization and local autonomy within the Ottoman Empire during its decline.
He acted almost like a local king, sometimes challenging Ottoman authority.
His reign helped stir nationalist feelings among Greeks and Albanians, which later contributed to independence movements.
His palace in Ioannina became a cultural center of the region.
End of his rule:
The Ottoman Sultan eventually saw Ali Pasha as too independent and rebellious. After a military campaign, Ali Pasha was defeated and killed in 1822.
Three Ottoman Sultans (1789–1861):
Selim III (reigned 1789–1807)
Known for early reform attempts (Nizam-ı Cedid) to modernize the army and administration.
Fashion still traditional Ottoman, with turbans and robes typical of elite Ottoman dress.
Mahmud II (reigned 1808–1839)
Continued and intensified reforms (Tanzimat reforms’ beginnings).
Famous for abolishing the Janissaries in 1826 and modernizing the military.
Introduced Western-style military uniforms for his new army, a big shift from traditional Ottoman clothing.
In court, still mostly traditional dress but with growing Western influence.
Abdulmejid I (reigned 1839–1861)
Oversaw full Tanzimat reforms aimed at modernizing the empire's legal, educational, and social systems.
His reign marked a clear fashion shift toward Western styles among the elite: European-style suits, hats (fez was popular but also European hats), and more Western grooming styles became common in court and urban elite circles.
What are some examples of Defensive Developmentalism?
Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876) themselves are a prime example:
Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane (1839): Announced reforms promising security of life, property, and honor for all subjects, no matter their religion.
Islahat Fermani (1856): Extended reforms emphasizing equality between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Centralized taxation system replacing tax farming to increase state revenue.
Western-style military reforms:
Dissolution of the Janissaries (1826).
Introduction of a modern army with limited conscription.
Attempt to foster an “Ottoman identity” (Ottomanization) to unite diverse populations under a common loyalty to the empire.
Legal reforms to establish rule of law for all subjects regardless of religion, weakening the power of local religious leaders.
What could go wrong with Defensive Developmentalism?
Resistance from different groups:
Christians resented losing their autonomy because reforms reduced power of religious communities and local rulers (millets).
Muslims resented loss of privileges and the dilution of traditional Islamic authority.
Implementation problems:
Centralized taxation and administration often clashed with local power structures and elites who lost control or income.
Financial costs:
Military and infrastructure reforms were expensive, leading to debt and reliance on European loans, which increased foreign influence.
Cultural and political tension:
Attempt to create a unified Ottoman identity was challenging due to ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity.
Political instability:
Reforms sometimes alienated powerful groups, leading to revolts and weakening state authority.
How were the European Powers making gains at the Ottoman Empire and Persia’s expense?
Military Defeats & Treaties:
The Russo-Ottoman War (1768-1774) ended with the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarja (1774), which was a major loss for the Ottomans.
The treaty forced the Ottomans to cede territory around the Black Sea to Russia, weakening Ottoman control.
Russia gained navigation rights through the strategically important Dardanelles Strait, giving them access to the Mediterranean Sea.
Capitulations:
Russia gained the right to protect the Christian Orthodox population inside the Ottoman Empire.
Capitulations also granted European powers special economic, legal, and religious privileges, allowing them to operate with less Ottoman control and influence local affairs.
Economic Influence via Concessions:
Foreign companies secured concessions—exclusive rights to build infrastructure, exploit resources, or manage key institutions in Ottoman and Persian territories.
These concessions increased European economic control, often at the expense of local sovereignty and long-term development.
Geopolitical Ambitions:
Russia’s goals included capturing Istanbul (Constantinople) to gain full control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits, securing naval dominance and Mediterranean access.
Other European powers, like Britain and France, also sought influence through diplomacy, trade, and military alliances.
What was the significance of Greek independence?
Greek independence (achieved in 1830) marked a major blow to Ottoman control in the Balkans.
It inspired other nationalist movements within the empire, threatening its territorial integrity.
Greece’s independence was supported by European powers (Britain, France, Russia), showing how foreign involvement could dismantle Ottoman authority.
The loss highlighted the decline of Ottoman power and the rising influence of European nationalism and imperialism in the region.
Tobacco Concession in Persia (1890)
The Persian government gave the British Imperial Tobacco Company exclusive rights to control:
Growing (cultivation),
Selling,
Distributing,
Exporting Persian tobacco.
The deal was for 50 years.
Persia received £15,000 annually plus a quarter of the company’s profits.
This concession was very unpopular among Persians because it:
Took control of an important local product away from Persian farmers and merchants,
Increased British economic influence in Persia,
Led to widespread protests and a boycott known as the Tobacco Protest (1891-92),
Forced the Persian government to cancel the concession under popular pressure.
British Increasing Presence on Shipping Lanes and Strategic Points
Britain controlled key strategic locations to protect its empire and maintain dominance over important trade routes, especially the passage to India:
Suez Canal (opened 1869): Vital shortcut between Europe and Asia.
Gibraltar (since 1704): Controls entrance to the Mediterranean Sea.
Kingdoms in Persian Gulf (from 1763): Protect British interests in oil and trade.
Aden (1839): Strategic port controlling access to Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
Cyprus (1878): British control over a Mediterranean island near the Ottoman Empire.
Egypt (1882): British control strengthened after occupation.
Together, these holdings allowed Britain to make the Mediterranean “their lake,” controlling crucial maritime routes and securing their imperial interests.
Background: The Case of Egypt (1827-1841)
Mohammad Ali Pasha strengthened Egypt’s economy and military, making Egypt a strong regional power.
Egypt’s growing power and economy began to compete with British interests and limit British trade.
The Ottoman Empire felt unable to control Egypt on its own.
The Balta Liman Treaty (1838) was signed between the Ottomans and the British:
Britain agreed to help the Ottoman Empire push Egyptian forces out of Syria.
In return, free trade policies (Balta Liman Treaty terms) were applied to Egypt.
Result:
Egyptian industry couldn’t compete with cheaper British goods.
Egypt’s economy shifted to being raw material and cash crop-based.
This period marked the use of “gunboat diplomacy” — Britain using naval power to influence political outcomes.
Egypt (1860-1882) — Follow-up
Egypt’s economy heavily depended on cash crops, especially cotton (which boomed during the American Civil War).
Egypt borrowed heavily to finance the Suez Canal construction (completed in 1869).
The canal had a huge human cost (~100,000 laborers died).
The global economic depression of 1873 worsened Egypt’s financial problems.
By 1876 Egypt was bankrupt and dependent on European loans.
Europe (mainly Britain and France) established the European Debt Commission to control Egypt’s finances.
In 1881, nationalist officer Urabi Pasha led a revolt against the corrupt government and foreign influence.
Britain invaded and occupied Egypt in 1882, staying until 1954.
Questions & Answers
Q: How did Mohammad Ali try to reform Egypt?
Built a strong, modern army and navy.
Developed local industries (textiles, weapons).
Improved agriculture, irrigation, and infrastructure.
Centralized administration and reduced power of local elites.
Tried to build Egypt as a powerful, semi-independent state under nominal Ottoman control.
Q: How did the British get themselves in a position to secure favorable agreements and influence reforms in Egypt?
They used military and diplomatic pressure (e.g., “gunboat diplomacy”).
Supported the Ottomans militarily against Egypt to maintain Ottoman influence while protecting British trade interests.
Pushed for free trade policies that favored British goods, weakening local Egyptian industry.
Exploited Egypt’s financial dependency after canal construction debts.
Controlled Egyptian finances through the European Debt Commission.
Intervened militarily to suppress nationalist movements threatening their interests.
Mohammad Ali & British Delegation
Key points to discuss:
Mohammad Ali’s goals for modernizing Egypt (military, economy, administration).
How his reforms challenged Ottoman and British interests.
British reaction: their diplomatic and military strategies to control Egypt’s reforms and influence.
Impact of British involvement on Egypt’s sovereignty and economy.
2. Tanzimat Reforms (Ottoman Empire)
Key points to discuss:
What were the Tanzimat Reforms? (Centralization, modernization, equality of subjects, legal and tax reforms)
Why were they introduced? (Response to internal weakness and European pressure)
Successes and failures of the reforms.
Reactions of different groups: Muslims, Christians, regional leaders.
Connection to Defensive Developmentalism and challenges faced.
3. The Conquest of Algeria
Key points to discuss:
French conquest of Algeria starting in 1830.
Reasons for French expansion: economic, political, and strategic.
Impact on Algerian society, economy, and culture.
Resistance movements and long-term consequences of colonization.
Comparison to other imperialist moves in the Middle East.
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Everyday Life Changes in the Middle East (19th Century)
Technology & Transportation:
Railways and steamships made travel and trade faster and more efficient.
Telegraphs improved communication across distances.
Automobiles and gramophones began to appear, changing daily experiences.
Urban Changes:
Cities were redesigned with wider streets, more public parks, and open spaces.
Streetcars (trams) became common, helping people move around cities more easily.
Gas lighting and electricity started to be introduced, changing nightlife and business hours.
Cosmopolitan culture grew, especially in bigger cities, where different ethnic and religious groups mingled.
Coffeehouses and salons became important social spaces for discussing books, ideas, and politics—mainly men gathered here.
Private/Household Life:
Traditionally, homes had multi-purpose rooms with gendered spaces (men and women had separate areas).
19th-century influence brought European-style furniture and more specialized rooms (e.g., living rooms, dining rooms).
Gender divisions in the home started to blur, especially in urban areas.
Couples visiting couples became more common—a sign of social change.
Rural homes stayed simpler with fewer rooms and no clear gender divisions in space.
How the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Dynasty Tried to Change Themselves (19th Century)
Modernization and Reform Efforts:
Introduced new technology and infrastructure (railways, telegraphs).
Reorganized cities to be more modern and efficient.
Tried to centralize government control and reform tax systems.
Attempted to create a stronger, more modern military.
Education reforms aimed to create a more literate and skilled population.
Tried to build a more unified identity (e.g., “Ottomanization”).
Challenges:
Resistance from traditional elites and religious groups.
Growing debts due to expensive reforms and foreign loans.
Increasing influence of European powers through trade concessions and political pressure.
Rising nationalism among various ethnic groups within the empires
How were the reforms of the mid-19th century changing the political structure of the Ottoman Empire?
Centralization of Power: The Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876) aimed to strengthen the central government by reducing the power of local leaders and tax farmers. This meant more direct control from Istanbul over the provinces.
Legal and Administrative Changes: Reforms introduced secular laws that applied equally to all citizens, regardless of religion. This was a shift from the millet system where religious groups had autonomy.
Modern Bureaucracy and Military: The reforms created a more professional, Western-style army and civil service, replacing older, decentralized systems.
Citizenship and Identity: The reforms tried to create a common “Ottoman” identity across diverse religious and ethnic groups to unify the empire politically.
European Influence: These reforms opened the door for more European involvement in Ottoman politics, often justified by claims of “humanitarian intervention” to fix problems like sectarian violence.
Sectarian Politics: Despite reforms, sectarian divisions were often officially recognized and politicized, especially after events like the 1861 intervention in Mount Lebanon, which established a sectarian political order.
What is Sectarianization?
Definition: Sectarianization is the process where religious affiliation becomes the main basis for collective identity and politics in a multi-religious society.
Not “Age-Old”: Sectarian identities aren’t fixed or ancient; they change depending on historical and political circumstances.
Example: Like if the U.S. federal government disappeared and people started dividing strictly along racial lines, the meaning and intensity of racial identities would shift dramatically.
How Did Sectarianization Happen in the Middle East?
Political Strategy: Groups or colonial powers used “divide and rule” tactics to control regions by encouraging divisions between sects.
For example, in the 1830s, Egyptians ruling Syria encouraged rivalry between Maronites and Druze.
European Influence:
European powers gave special rights and protections to certain religious minorities through capitulation agreements:
Russians supported Greek Orthodox Christians.
French protected Maronites.
British supported Protestants and Druze.
Missionaries and Travelers: The arrival of European missionaries and travelers reinforced sectarian identities by focusing on religious communities.
Sectarian Groups in Syria and Lebanon:
Sunnis
Shia
Alawites
Druze
Maronites
Greek Orthodox
Greek Catholics
Bedouins
Jews
Why Does This Matter?
Sectarianism was not just a natural outcome of religion but was deeply tied to political control, colonial ambitions, and social changes.
It shaped the political and social structure of the Middle East and still influences conflicts and identities today.
Key Events and Changes:
1854: Russia pressures Ottoman Empire
Leads to the Crimean War (1854-1856):
Allies: Britain, France, Ottoman Empire
Opponent: Russia
Result: Defeat of Russia in 1856
Aftermath and Reforms:
Islahat Fermani (1856):
Ottoman decree promoting more equality and tax reform
Attempt to boost Ottoman nationalism (Osmanlilik) to unify the diverse empire
Land Code of 1858:
Allowed Europeans to purchase land in the Ottoman Empire
European investors favored Christians in business dealings, increasing their influence
Political and Economic Impact:
The Crimean War shifted power balances in the region and led to reforms aimed at modernizing and centralizing the empire.
European involvement in Ottoman lands grew, especially through investments and land ownership, which often strengthened Christian communities economically and politically.
Regional Highlights:
Beirut and Mt. Lebanon were important urban and cultural centers with diverse populations, including Christian groups that gained European support
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