Geography Study Notes

Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide over the mantle.

Causes of Tectonic Plate Movements

Plate movements are primarily driven by convection currents in the mantle and the forces of gravity.

Major Tectonic Plates and Their Interactions

Major plates include the Pacific Plate, North American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate, Antarctic Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and South American Plate. Their interactions lead to various geological phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain formation.

Rock Cycle

• Central Idea: Understanding the processes and characteristics of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Processes

• Igneous Rocks

  • Formation through cooling and solidification of magma/lava.

• Sedimentary Rocks

  • Formation through deposition, compaction, and cementation of sediments.

• Metamorphic Rocks

  • Formation through heat and pressure altering existing rocks.

Igneous Rocks

• Characteristics

  • Formed from cooling magma/lava.

  • Can be intrusive or extrusive.

• Examples

  • Granite, Basalt.

Sedimentary Rocks

• Characteristics

  • Formed from compressed sediments.

  • Often contain fossils.

• Examples

  • Sandstone, Limestone.

Metamorphic Rocks

• Characteristics

  • Formed from existing rocks under heat and pressure.

  • Can have foliated or non-foliated textures.

• Examples

  • Marble, Slate.

Landforms

• Tectonic Activity

  • Landforms: Mountains, Valleys.

  • Formation: Collisions or separations of tectonic plates.

• Erosion

  • Landforms: Canyons, Arches.

  • Formation: Weathering and transport of rock and soil.

• Deposition

  • Landforms: Deltas, Alluvial Fans.

  • Formation: Sediments deposited by water, wind, or ice.

Examples in Canada

• Tectonic Activity

  • Landform: Canadian Rockies.

  • Formation: Collision of Pacific and North American plates.

• Erosion

  • Landform: Bay of Fundy.

  • Formation: Erosion by tides and rivers.

• Deposition

  • Landform: Oak Ridges Moraine.

  • Formation: Deposition of glacial sediments.

Weathering and Erosion

• Physical Weathering: Breaks down rocks without changing their composition.

• Chemical Weathering: Alters rocks' chemical composition.

• Weathering vs. Erosion: Weathering breaks down rocks, while erosion transports the broken-down material.

Canadian Landform Regions

• Canadian Shield: The Canadian Shield is a vast geological region characterized by ancient, exposed rock formations that are among the oldest on Earth. This rugged landscape is dotted with lakes, rivers, and forests, making it a haven for outdoor enthusiasts and wildlife. In addition to its natural beauty, the Canadian Shield is rich in mineral resources such as gold, nickel, and copper, making it a significant area for mining activities.

• Interior Plains: The Interior Plains of Canada encompass a vast expanse of flat, fertile land that stretches across the central part of the country. This region is ideal for agriculture, with its nutrient-rich soil supporting the growth of crops such as wheat, canola, and barley. The vast prairies of the Interior Plains are not only important for agriculture but also provide habitat for a variety of wildlife, including bison and pronghorn.

• Importance: The Canadian landform regions play a crucial role in providing resources for agriculture and mining in Canada. The Interior Plains are a breadbasket, supplying the country with a significant portion of its food production. Meanwhile, the Canadian Shield's mineral wealth fuels the mining industry, contributing to the economy and providing employment opportunities. Overall, these landform regions are essential components of Canada's natural landscape and economic prosperity.

Weathering and Erosion

• Weathering Agents: Water, wind, ice.

• Examples of Erosion: River cutting through rocks, wind blowing sand dunes.

• Deposition Environments: Beaches, river deltas, glacial moraines.

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion are natural processes that shape the Earth's surface over time. Weathering agents such as water, wind, and ice play a crucial role in breaking down rocks and minerals. Water can seep into cracks in rocks, freeze, and expand, causing the rock to break apart. Wind can carry abrasive particles that wear away rocks through constant friction. Ice, in the form of glaciers, can carve out valleys and create unique landforms.

Erosion, on the other hand, involves the movement of weathered material from one place to another. Examples of erosion include a river cutting through rocks over time, creating deep canyons and valleys. The wind blowing sand dunes across deserts is another visible example of erosion in action. These processes not only change the landscape but also contribute to the formation of new landforms.

Deposition environments are where the eroded material eventually settles. Beaches, formed by the deposition of sand and sediment along coastlines, are dynamic environments constantly shaped by the action of waves and currents. River deltas, where rivers meet the sea, are fertile areas created by the deposition of sediment carried by the river. Glacial moraines are ridges of till left behind by retreating glaciers, showcasing the power of ice erosion and deposition in shaping the land.

Canadian Landform Regions

• Canadian Shield: Ancient rock formation covering half of Canada.

• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands: Fertile region with major cities.

• Impact on Human Settlement: Landforms influence where people live and what activities they engage in.

Canadian Landform Regions

• Canadian Shield: The Canadian Shield is a vast geological formation that spans over half of Canada, encompassing regions such as Ontario, Quebec, and parts of Manitoba. This ancient rock formation is characterized by its rugged terrain, dotted with lakes, rivers, and forests. The Canadian Shield is not only a significant landform in Canada but also holds immense geological and historical importance, dating back billions of years.

• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands: The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands region is a fertile and densely populated area in Canada, known for its rich agricultural lands and major urban centers such as Toronto, Montreal, and Ottawa. The region's proximity to the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River has played a crucial role in its development, providing access to waterways for transportation, trade, and recreation.

• Impact on Human Settlement: The diverse landform regions of Canada have had a profound impact on human settlement patterns and activities. The rugged terrain of the Canadian Shield, for example, has influenced the types of industries that thrive in the region, such as mining and forestry. In contrast, the fertile soils of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands have attracted agricultural communities and urban development. Overall, landforms shape not only where people choose to live but also the economic activities they engage in, highlighting the interconnected relationship between geography and human societies.

Factors that Influence Climate:

• Latitude

• Elevation

• Ocean currents

Impact of Climate:

• Influence on vegetation

• Influence on human activities

Factors that Influence Climate:

• Latitude: The position of a location on Earth in relation to the equator plays a significant role in determining its climate. Areas closer to the equator receive more direct sunlight, leading to warmer temperatures.

• Elevation: The altitude of a place affects its climate due to the changes in temperature with increasing height. Higher elevations generally have cooler temperatures than lower elevations.

• Ocean currents: The movement of water in the oceans can impact the climate of coastal regions. For example, warm ocean currents can lead to milder winters in nearby areas.

Impact of Climate:

• Influence on vegetation: Different climates support different types of plant life. For instance, tropical climates are conducive to lush rainforests, while arid climates may only support desert vegetation.

• Influence on human activities: Climate can affect various aspects of human life, such as the type of crops that can be grown in an area, the prevalence of certain diseases, and the types of activities that can be pursued outdoors. For example, a cold climate may limit the availability of certain outdoor recreational activities.

Soil Types in Canada

• Types: Podzols, Chernozems, Luvisols

• Agricultural Significance: Chernozems - fertile for crops

• Factors Affecting Fertility: pH, organic matter

• Conservation Practices: Crop rotation, contour plowing

Soil Types in Canada

Canada boasts a diverse range of soil types, each playing a crucial role in the country's agricultural landscape. Three prominent soil types found in Canada are Podzols, Chernozems, and Luvisols.

Podzols are characterized by their acidic nature and distinct layering, making them less suitable for agriculture compared to other soil types. Chernozems, on the other hand, are known for their high fertility and dark color, making them highly desirable for crop cultivation. Farmers often prefer Chernozems due to their ability to support a wide variety of crops.

Several factors influence soil fertility in Canada, with pH levels and organic matter content being among the most significant. Maintaining optimal pH levels and increasing organic matter through composting and cover cropping are essential practices to enhance soil fertility and productivity.

In terms of conservation practices, Canadian farmers implement various strategies to preserve soil health and prevent erosion. Crop rotation is a common practice that helps maintain soil fertility by alternating crops to prevent nutrient depletion. Additionally, contour plowing is utilized to reduce soil erosion by plowing along the contour lines of the land, minimizing water runoff and soil loss.

Overall, understanding the different soil types in Canada and implementing appropriate conservation practices are essential for sustainable agriculture and ensuring the long-term productivity of the country's farmlands.