European History Second Quarterly Objective exam Bank in flashcard form

Flashcard 1

• Q: Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century?

  • A: Prussia, Russia, and Austria

Flashcard 2

• Q: David Hume was a key figure in the ____________ Enlightenment.

  • A: Scottish

Flashcard 3

• Q: All of the following played a role in the erosion of French absolutism except the:

  • A: Theories of Charles Montesquieu

Flashcard 4

• Q: Before the scientific revolution, Europeans' view of the universe was based on the ideas of:

  • A: Aristotle

Flashcard 5

• Q: Which of the following subjects experienced a surge in popularity among the reading public in the eighteenth century?

  • A: Science

Flashcard 6

• Q: Between 1750 and 1789 the majority of French books were produced by publishing companies in:

  • A: The Netherlands and Switzerland

Flashcard 7

• Q: Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as:

  • A: Rococo

Flashcard 8

• Q: Copernicus's theory of the universe:

  • A: Postulated a sun-centered view of the universe

Flashcard 9

• Q: The most famous salon was that of:

  • A: Madame Geoffrin

Flashcard 10

• Q: The key feature of Newton's system was the law of:

  • A: Universal gravitation

Flashcard 11

• Q: Membership at the salons was:

  • A: Restricted to the well-born, well-connected, and exceptionally talented

Flashcard 12

• Q: The two men generally given credit for creating the modern scientific method were Francis Bacon and:

  • A: René Descartes

Flashcard 13

• Q: The primary purpose of Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) was to:

  • A: Popularize the findings of the scientific revolution

Flashcard 14

• Q: The Enlightenment reached its highest development in France for all the following reasons except that:

  • A: French scientists and universities were the most preeminent in the scientific revolution

Flashcard 15

• Q: All of the following were causes of the scientific revolution except:

  • A: The active support of the papacy

Flashcard 16

• Q: In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John Locke claimed that:

  • A: Human development is determined by education and society

Flashcard 17

• Q: The concept of the reading revolution refers to:

  • A: The shift from reading out loud texts perceived as authoritative to reading many different texts rapidly, silently, and individually

Flashcard 18

• Q: __________ reduced all substances to matter and mind.

  • A: René Descartes

Flashcard 19

• Q: In general, what was Voltaire's attitude toward government?

  • A: He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for

Flashcard 20

• Q: Rousseau believed that:

  • A: Women were best suited to the roles of mother and wife

Flashcard 21

• Q: According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to:

  • A: "Change the general way of thinking"

Flashcard 22

• Q: Madame du Châtelet:

  • A: Believed that women's limited contribution to science was the result of unequal education

Flashcard 23

• Q: Rousseau's concept of the general will asserts that:

  • A: The authentic, long-term needs of the people can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority

Flashcard 24

• Q: _________'s Historical and Critical Dictionary displayed his skepticism.

  • A: Bayle

Flashcard 25

• Q: A striking feature of the salons was that:

  • A: Philosophes, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled

Flashcard 26

• Q: ____________'s Persian Letters satirized French society.

  • A: Montesquieu

Flashcard 27

• Q: ____________ believed that the essence of the Enlightenment was the courage to use one's own understanding.

  • A: Kant

Flashcard 28

• Q: Enlightenment thinkers developed the idea that race was similar to:

  • A: Species

Flashcard 29

• Q: In A Natural History, _________ argued that humans divided into separate species, due largely to climatic conditions.

  • A: Comte de Buffon

Flashcard 30

• Q: The enlightened policies of Frederick II of Prussia included all of the following except:

  • A: Freeing the Prussian serfs

Flashcard 31

• Q: Catherine the Great of Russia came to power in 1762 through:

  • A: A military coup

Flashcard 32

• Q: ___________ put an end to Catherine the Great's intention to reform Russian serfdom.

  • A: Pugachev's rebellion

Flashcard 33

• Q: Immanuel Kant argued for:

  • A: Freedom of the press

Flashcard 34

• Q: To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, Empress Maria Theresa:

  • A: Reduced nobles' power over their serfs

Flashcard 35

• Q: Joseph II's conversion of labor obligations to cash payments:

  • A: Was opposed by both nobles and peasants

Flashcard 36

• Q: The agricultural revolution was first manifested in:

  • A: The Low Countries

Flashcard 37

• Q: Between 1500 and 1600, the ____________ were the major European players in the Indian Ocean trade.

  • A: Portuguese

Flashcard 38

• Q: The English Navigation Acts mandated that all English imports and exports be transported on English ships, and they also:

  • A: Gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies

Flashcard 39

• Q: Dutch commercial activities in Indonesia centered on:

  • A: Spices

Flashcard 40

• Q: Which of these events happened first?

  • A: Passage of British Navigation Acts

Flashcard 41

• Q: Britain's great rival for influence in India was:

  • A: France

Flashcard 42

• Q: The European guild system reached its height in the:

  • A: Eighteenth century

Flashcard 43

• Q: The leadership of the Dutch people in farming methodology can be attributed primarily to:

  • A: The necessity to provide for a densely populated country

Flashcard 44

• Q: Between 1000 and 1800, the most dramatic downturn in European population occurred in the:

  • A: Fourteenth century

Flashcard 45

• Q: _____________ occupied the summit of the eighteenth-century world of work.

  • A: Guild masters

Flashcard 46

• Q: Jethro Tull's contributions to English agriculture were the product of:

  • A: Empirical research

Flashcard 47

• Q: The social group on which the success of the English agricultural revolution depended was the:

  • A: Tenant farmers

Flashcard 48

• Q: By 1800, __________ had the largest population in Europe.

  • A: France

Flashcard 49

• Q: In 1790, African slaves made up about __________ percent of the U.S. population.

  • A: 20

Flashcard 50

• Q: Which of the following was not a function of guilds in early modern civic life?

  • A: Tax collection

Flashcard 51

• Q: All of the following were shortcomings of the putting-out system, from the capitalists' point of view, except:

  • A: Rigid production techniques

Flashcard 52

• Q: The term spinster referred to:

  • A: A widowed or unmarried woman who spun thread for a living

Flashcard 53

• Q: Typically, the putting-out industry employed:

  • A: Rural families

Flashcard 54

• Q: __________ led the revitalization of Spain in the eighteenth century.

  • A: Philip V

Flashcard 55

• Q: For cottage workers, holy Monday was:

  • A: A day of relaxation

Flashcard 56

• Q: The Navigation Acts were a form of economic warfare that initially targeted the:

  • A: Dutch

Flashcard 57

• Q: Early public health measures that may have helped reduce death rates in eighteenth-century Europe included all of the following except:

  • A: Discovery of an effective vaccine against the bubonic plague

Flashcard 58

• Q: ____________ were the offspring of Spanish men and Indian women.

  • A: Mestizos

Flashcard 59

• Q: The decisive round in the colonial conflict between England and France was the:

  • A: Seven Years' War

Flashcard 60

• Q: The British won the American component of the Seven Years' War because:

  • A: They diverted men and money from Europe to the American theater

Flashcard 61

• Q: In the eighteenth century, some guilds grew more accessible to women, particularly in the:

  • A: Textile industry

Flashcard 62

• Q: ___________'s Wealth of Nations argued for the value of free markets.

  • A: Adam Smith

Flashcard 63

• Q: By the 1770s, the biggest increase in British foreign trade was with:

  • A: The British colonial empire

Flashcard 64

• Q: According to Adam Smith, government should limit itself to all of the following except:

  • A: Regulating trade

Flashcard 65

• Q: From 1600 on, the typical system of labor control in Spanish America was:

  • A: Debt peonage

Flashcard 66

• Q: A broad-based campaign to abolish slavery began in Britain after:

  • A: 1775

Flashcard 67

• Q: Which of the following events occurred last?

  • A: Edward Jenner performs first smallpox vaccine

Flashcard 68

• Q: In seventeenth- and early-eighteenth-century Europe, most couples:

  • A: Married in their late twenties

Flashcard 69

• Q: Most girls who sought work outside their families found jobs as:

  • A: Domestic servants

Flashcard 70

• Q: The pattern of late marriage in early modern Europe resulted primarily from the:

  • A: Necessary precondition of economic independence

Flashcard 71

• Q: The increased importance of fashionable clothing in the eighteenth century was a chief indicator of the ________ revolution.

  • A: Consumer

Flashcard 72

• Q: The consumer economy was concentrated in:

  • A: Large cities in northwestern Europe and North America

Flashcard 73

• Q: Which of the following played a role in the care of the sick in the eighteenth century?

  • A: All of these are correct

Flashcard 74

• Q: According to the text, the underlying reason for the illegitimacy explosion of 1750–1850 was:

  • A: The growth of cottage industry and peasant migration to the cities

Flashcard 75

• Q: The almanacs popular among European peasants were:

  • A: Compendiums of astrology, jokes, weird facts, and calendars of religious, astronomical, and agricultural events

Flashcard 76

• Q: The neglectful attitudes toward children in preindustrial Europe were conditioned mostly by:

  • A: High infant mortality rates

Flashcard 77

• Q: In the eighteenth century, the basic religious unit in Europe was:

  • A: The parish church

Flashcard 78

• Q: In foundling homes, babies:

  • A: Died at the rate of 50 to 90 percent per year

Flashcard 79

• Q: St. Vincent de Paul is most famous for his:

  • A: Establishment of foundling homes

Flashcard 80

• Q: According to the text, one danger that threatened young girls living away from home in domestic service was:

  • A: Risk of sexual attack by males in the households they served

Flashcard 81

• Q: All of the following help explain the appeal of Pietism except:

  • A: Its insistence on the authority of the pope

Flashcard 82

• Q: According to the text, the diet of wealthy Europeans in the eighteenth century:

  • A: Included large amounts of meat and sweets

Flashcard 83

• Q: The diet of the poorer classes consisted largely of bread and:

  • A: Vegetables

Flashcard 84

• Q: The parish church served all of the following functions in rural Europe except:

  • A: The administration of criminal justice

Flashcard 85

• Q: The American crop that became an important dietary supplement by the end of the century was:

  • A: Potatoes

Flashcard 86

• Q: In addition to supervising labor and birth, midwives generally:

  • A: Treated female medical difficulties such as irregular menstrual cycles, venereal diseases, and breast-feeding problems

Flashcard 87

• Q: Changes in the food consumption habits of Europeans in the eighteenth century included all of the following except:

  • A: Declining consumption of alcoholic beverages

Flashcard 88

• Q: Many surgeons gained anatomical knowledge and practical experience:

  • A: On the many battlefields of Europe

Flashcard 89

• Q: John Wesley founded the movement known as:

  • A: Methodism

Flashcard 90

• Q: In the eighteenth century, a number of Roman Catholic monarchs including those of __________, instituted reforms that increased state power over the clergy.

  • A: Austria and Spain

Flashcard 91

• Q: The greatest achievement of eighteenth-century medical science was the:

  • A: Conquest of smallpox

Flashcard 92

• Q: The Protestant revival of the late seventeenth century began in:

  • A: Germany

Flashcard 93

• Q: Edward Jenner received financial prizes from the British government for:

  • A: Discovering that cowpox could be used to vaccinate against smallpox

Flashcard 94

• Q: The term territorial churches refers to:

  • A: Churches controlled by local government authority

Flashcard 95

• Q: The dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1773 is a striking indication of the:

  • A: Power of the state over the church

Flashcard 96

• Q: The strength of popular religion in Catholic countries reflected:

  • A: Its importance in community life

Flashcard 97

• Q: All of the following were aspects of the celebration of Carnival except:

  • A: Begging forgiveness for one's sins

Flashcard 98

• Q: All of the following were aspects of the Protestant revival in Germany except:

  • A: Rationalism

Flashcard 99

• Q: John Wesley's “Methodism” was particularly appealing because:

  • A: He refuted the doctrine of predestination, insisting that anyone who earnestly sought salvation could gain it

Flashcard 100

• Q: Madame du Coudray's best-known work is:

  • A: Manual on the Art of Childbirth

Flashcard 101

• Q: During the Reign of Terror, the dominant person on the Committee of Public Safety was:

  • A: Maximilien Robespierre

Flashcard 102

• Q: During the Hundred Days:

  • A: Napoleon returned from exile to rule France briefly

Flashcard 103

• Q: All of the following were true of the French clergy on the eve of the French Revolution except:

  • A: They were under the complete control of the papacy

Flashcard 104

• Q: All of the following were considered members of the Third Estate except:

  • A: Nuns

Flashcard 105

• Q: Which of the following occurred first?

  • A: Napoleon overthrows the Directory

Flashcard 106

• Q: ____________'s mistress, Madame de Pompadour, exercised tremendous influence over the arts.

  • A: Louis XV

Flashcard 107

• Q: According to the text, the Directory continued French wars of conquest begun by early revolutionary governments:

  • A: Because big, victorious armies kept men employed and could draw sustenance from the conquered areas

Flashcard 108

• Q: The National Assembly that ruled France from 1789 to 1791 passed laws that:

  • A: Broadened women's rights to seek divorce and inherit property

Flashcard 109

• Q: The Treaty of ___________ (1802) left France in control of Holland and the Austrian Netherlands.

  • A: Amiens

Flashcard 110

• Q: ___________, Russia, and Sweden joined with Britain to form the Third Coalition against France.

  • A: Austria

Flashcard 111

• Q: The American Revolution had its immediate origins in struggles over:

  • A: Increased taxes

Flashcard 112

• Q: Abbé Sieyès's answer to the question “What is the Third Estate?” was that it was:

  • A: The true strength of the French nation

Flashcard 113

• Q: Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia at the Battle of ___________ in 1805.

  • A: Austerlitz

Flashcard 114

• Q: The first great revolt against the Grand Empire occurred in ___________ in 1808.

  • A: Spain

Flashcard 115

• Q: The 1685, ____________ set the parameters of slavery and defined the rights of free people of color.

  • A: Code noir

Flashcard 116

• Q: ____________ captured conservative opinion on the Revolution in his Reflections on the Revolution in France.

  • A: Edmund Burke

Flashcard 117

• Q: The ____________ marked the advent of the second revolution.

  • A: Fall of the monarchy

Flashcard 118

• Q: In the 1780s, over 50 percent of France's annual budget was expended on:

  • A: Interest payments on the debt

Flashcard 119

• Q: The legal definition of the composition of the prerevolutionary Third Estate included:

  • A: Everyone who was not a noble or member of the clergy

Flashcard 120

• Q: Revisionist historians of the French Revolution stress all of the following except the:

  • A: Conflict between the nobility and the bourgeoisie

Flashcard 121

• Q: The men elected to represent the Third Estate at the Estates General were primarily:

  • A: Lawyers and government officials

Flashcard 122

• Q: The grievance petitions from all three Estates called for all of the following except:

  • A: An American-style republic

Flashcard 123

• Q: The Tennis Court Oath was:

  • A: Sworn by renegade delegates from the Estates General, most of them from the Third Estate

Flashcard 124

• Q: The term Great Fear refers to the:

  • A: Fear of vagabonds and outlaws in the countryside that fanned the flames of rebellion in the summer of 1789

Flashcard 125

• Q: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guaranteed all of the following except:

  • A: Economic equality

Flashcard 126

• Q: The accomplishments of the National Assembly included all of the following except the:

  • A: Introduction of universal compulsory education

Flashcard 127

• Q: According to the text, the string of French military victories after the winter of 1793–1794 was largely due to:

  • A: Patriotism and the superior numbers supplied by the draft

Flashcard 128

• Q: The life-and-death political struggle between the Girondins and the Mountain resulted mainly from:

  • A: Personal hatred and jealousy

Flashcard 129

• Q: According to the text, in the summer of 1789 the National Assembly was driven toward more radical action by:

  • A: Revolutionary actions by French peasants and the common people of Paris

Flashcard 130

• Q: The Reign of Terror ended when:

  • A: Members of the Convention, afraid Robespierre would turn the Terror on them, had him arrested and executed

Flashcard 131

• Q: The Reign of Terror was directed primarily at:

  • A: Any and all enemies of the Revolution

Flashcard 132

• Q: The __________ system was meant to exclude British goods from the continent.

  • A: Continental

Flashcard 133

• Q: The Committee of Public Safety was:

  • A: An emergency executive committee appointed by the Convention

Flashcard 134

• Q: Napoleon's invasion of __________ began in June 1812.

  • A: Russia

Flashcard 135

• Q: According to Olympe de Gouges:

  • A: Men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law

Flashcard 136

• Q: British economist Thomas Malthus argued that:

  • A: Population always grew faster than the food supply

Flashcard 137

• Q: A ___________ boom in the 1770s enhanced Britain's infrastructure advantage.

  • A: Canal-building

Flashcard 138

• Q: In the eighteenth century, a shortage of __________ held British industry back.

  • A: Wood

Flashcard 139

• Q: Industrial growth first really accelerated in Britain during the:

  • A: 1780s

Flashcard 140

• Q: The tendency to hire family units in the early factories was:

  • A: Usually a response to the wishes of the families

Flashcard 141

• Q: A constant shortage of __________ drove the work of many early industrial inventors.

  • A: Thread

Flashcard 142

• Q: The first modern factories arose in the:

  • A: Textile industry

Flashcard 143

• Q: All of the following were consequences of revolutionary changes in the textile industry except:

  • A: A reduction in child labor

Flashcard 144

• Q: All of the following facilitated the Industrial Revolution in eighteenth-century Britain except:

  • A: Extensive investment of foreign capital in Britain

Flashcard 145

• Q: The earliest steam engines were:

  • A: Used to pump water out of coal mines

Flashcard 146

• Q: The difficulties faced by the continental economies in their efforts to compete with the British included all of the following except the:

  • A: Scarcity of human capital

Flashcard 147

• Q: Because working conditions were poor in early textile factories, factory owners:

  • A: Turned to orphaned children as an important part of their work force

Flashcard 148

• Q: The major breakthrough in energy and power supplies that catalyzed the Industrial Revolution was:

  • A: James Watt's steam engine, developed and marketed between the 1760s and the 1780s

Flashcard 149

• Q: The first factories:

  • A: Grew out of the putting-out system

Flashcard 150

• Q: The switch from charcoal to _________ helped revolutionize the iron industry.

  • A: Coal

Flashcard 151

• Q: By reducing the cost of overland freight, the railroad:

  • A: Created national markets

Flashcard 152

• Q: In 1860, Britain produced _________ percent of the world's output of industrial goods.

  • A: 20

Flashcard 153

• Q: The Crystal Palace exhibition of 1851 commemorated the:

  • A: Industrial dominance of Britain

Flashcard 154

• Q: Thomas Malthus argued that growth in __________ would always outstrip growth in the food supply.

  • A: Population

Flashcard 155

• Q: William Cockerill was:

  • A: An English carpenter who built cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium

Flashcard 156

• Q: Friedrich List was an early proponent of:

  • A: Economic nationalism

Flashcard 157

• Q: The key development that allowed continental banks to shed their earlier conservative nature was the:

  • A: Establishment of limited liability investment

Flashcard 158

• Q: ______________ managed to raise per capita industrial levels in the nineteenth century.

  • A: Only Britain, Germany, and Belgium

Flashcard 159

• Q: In The Condition of the Working Class in England, Friedrich Engels stated that:

  • A: The British middle classes were guilty of “mass murder” and “wholesale robbery”

Flashcard 160

• Q: Which of the following countries was the least industrialized in 1860?

  • A: Russia

Flashcard 161

• Q: Scholarly statistical studies of the condition of members of the British working class indicate that:

  • A: Improvement did not come until after 1820

Flashcard 162

• Q: Most early industrialists drew on ____________ for labor and capital.

  • A: Family and friends

Flashcard 163

• Q: The Factory Act of 1833:

  • A: Limited the workday for children between nine and thirteen to eight hours a day

Flashcard 164

• Q: The _____________ attacked factories and smashed industrial machinery.

  • A: Luddites

Flashcard 165

• Q: The law that outlawed labor unions and strikes in Britain was the:

  • A: Combination Acts of 1799

Flashcard 166

• Q: The Mines Act of 1842:

  • A: Prohibited underground work for women as well as boys under ten

Flashcard 167

• Q: Railroad construction on the continent:

  • A: Featured varying degrees of government involvement

Flashcard 168

• Q: In the 1760s, Monday was popularly known as ___________ because so many workers took the day off.

  • A: Saint Monday

Flashcard 169

• Q: At the Congress of Vienna, the victorious allies:

  • A: Were guided by the principle of the balance of power

Flashcard 170

• Q: The allied powers at the Congress of Vienna were determined to:

  • A: Avoid the creation of hostility and resentment in France

Flashcard 171

• Q: The Holy Alliance included:

  • A: Austria, Russia, and Prussia

Flashcard 172

• Q: Which of the following events happened first?

  • A: The Holy Alliance is formed

Flashcard 173

• Q: The Carlsbad Decrees:

  • A: Instituted repressive measures in the German Confederation

Flashcard 174

• Q: Why did Klemens von Metternich, as Austrian foreign minister, have to oppose the spread of nationalism in Europe?

  • A: Austria was a multiethnic empire, and the spread of nationalism among its different ethnic groups threatened to dissolve the empire

Flashcard 175

• Q: The demands of liberalism included all of the following except:

  • A: Social welfare reform

Flashcard 176

• Q: Metternich believed that __________ was responsible for the warfare and bloodshed of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

  • A: Liberalism

Flashcard 177

• Q: Which of the following was not part of the Austrian Empire in 1815?

  • A: Bavaria

Flashcard 178

• Q: In their war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, the Greeks ultimately won the support of:

  • A: Great Britain, France, and Russia

Flashcard 179

• Q: Early French socialists believed in all of the following except:

  • A: Violent class warfare

Flashcard 180

• Q: Which French socialist participated in the provisional government formed in Paris after the February 1848 abdication of King Louis Philippe?

  • A: Louis Blanc

Flashcard 181

• Q: According to the text, one of Karl Marx's most important criticisms of the French utopian socialists was that:

  • A: Their appeals to the wealthy to help the poor were naive

Flashcard 182

• Q: Karl Marx argued that socialism would be established:

  • A: By violent revolution

Flashcard 183

• Q: The doctrine of laissez faire holds that there should be:

  • A: As little government intervention in the economy as possible

Flashcard 184

• Q: According to Joseph Proudhon, property was:

  • A: Profit stolen from workers

Flashcard 185

• Q: Count Henri de Saint-Simon believed that:

  • A: The key to progress was proper social organization

Flashcard 186

• Q: According to Henri de Saint-Simon, society's parasites included all of the following except:

  • A: Industrialists

Flashcard 187

• Q: Eugène Delacroix's greatest masterpiece celebrated the:

  • A: Nobility of popular revolution

Flashcard 188

• Q: Romanticism was, in part, a rejection of:

  • A: Classicism

Flashcard 189

• Q: According to Marx, the driving force in history was the:

  • A: Economic relationship between classes

Flashcard 190

• Q: The beliefs and aspirations of the romantics included all of the following except:

  • A: Rejection of nature

Flashcard 191

• Q: The Battle of Peterloo refers to the:

  • A: Working-class demonstration that was broken up by cavalry charges

Flashcard 192

• Q: Lord Byron died:

  • A: Fighting for Greek independence

Flashcard 193

• Q: The most important factor influencing the peaceful midcentury reforms in Great Britain was:

  • A: Political competition between the aristocracy and the middle class

Flashcard 194

• Q: Marx's theory of historical evolution was built on the philosophy of:

  • A: Hegel

Flashcard 195

• Q: The winners of the Revolution of 1830 in France were the:

  • A: Notables

Flashcard 196

• Q: All of the following were causative factors of the Revolution of 1848 in Paris except:

  • A: The closing of the national workshops

Flashcard 197

• Q: The act that precipitated the Revolution of 1830 in Paris was:

  • A: Charles X's repudiation of the Constitutional Charter

Flashcard 198

• Q: The Revolutions of 1848 began in:

  • A: France

Flashcard 199

• Q: After Austria, _________ was the most important German state.

  • A: Prussia

Flashcard 200

• Q: The National Assembly that met in Frankfurt in 1848 was made up of all of the following except:

  • A: Labor union leaders

Flashcard 201

Q: After Austria, _________ was the most important German state.
A: B) Prussia

Flashcard 202

Q: The National Assembly that met in Frankfurt in 1848 was made up of all of the following except:
A: A) labor union leaders