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Expansion & Crisis
How Popular Enthusiasm for US Expansion Led to Debates over Slavery
The desire for expansion not only fueled the growth of the United States but also ignited fierce debates around the morality and legality of slavery, ultimately contributing significantly to the secession of Southern states in the 1860s. This period marked a defining moment in U.S. history as the nation grappled with its identity amid territorial growth and the ethical implications of slavery.
John Gast, American Progress, 1872
A significant artistic representation of this era is John Gast’s painting, American Progress, published in 1872. This chromolithograph, created by George A. Crofutt, symbolizes the belief in Manifest Destiny, depicting America’s territorial expansion as a benevolent force bringing civilization and progress.
Manifest Destiny
Definition
Manifest Destiny was the doctrine that the expansion of the United States throughout the Americas was both justified and inevitable. Advocates of this movement viewed expansion as a divine right and a moral mandate to spread democracy and capitalism.
Characteristics of Manifest Destiny:
Patriotic Sentiment: This ideology spurred a surge of national pride and a collective belief among citizens that the U.S. was destined to spread its ideals.
Idealism and Perfectionism: Many proponents thought America could lead to a new social order, showcasing democracy and freedom globally. This perspective often intertwined with religious beliefs, suggesting that expansion was willed by a higher power.
Supporters and Opponents:
Proponents: They envisioned an "empire of liberty," seeking to extend American democratic ideals into Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, and across the Pacific Islands. Figures such as John L. O'Sullivan, who coined the term "Manifest Destiny," provided fervent justification for expansion.
Opponents: Critics like Henry Clay raised serious concerns about the implications of such expansion on the already contentious issue of slavery and the potential destruction of the fragile national unity. Their arguments highlighted the moral dilemmas of spreading slavery alongside democracy. Moreover, the rise of the Penny Press emerged as a means to disseminate ideas and attitudes toward expansion, transforming public opinion.
Situation in Texas (1830s)
Stephen Austin: Known as the "Father of Texas," he played a pivotal role in establishing the first American settlement in Texas in 1822, bringing thousands of American settlers to the region under Mexican governance. Austin's efforts were crucial in shaping Texas's demographics and economic landscape.
Mexican Government Initiatives: In 1824, the Mexican government implemented policies to populate Texas, including land grants and tax exemptions, aimed at developing the sparsely populated frontier.
Conflict Developments: By 1830, the Mexican government struggled to manage the influx of American migrants. Tensions escalated in 1835 when Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna sought to centralize control, leading to violent confrontations with Texian rebels demanding autonomy.
Key Events: The Texans’ fight for independence included significant confrontations, most notably the Battle of the Alamo in March 1836, where Texian defenders, despite being vastly outnumbered, became martyrs for their cause. A pivotal quote attributed to a Texian leader encapsulates this defiance: "You may all go to hell and I will go to Texas."
Texas Admission to Statehood
After achieving independence from Mexico in 1836, Texas sought to join the United States. However, this request faced substantial opposition due to fears among Northern politicians that admitting Texas as a slave state would disrupt the balance of power in Congress, heightening sectional tensions and fostering divisions that would culminate in the Civil War.
Election of 1844 and Expansion
Candidates: The presidential election of 1844 featured Whig candidate Henry Clay against Democratic candidate James K. Polk, who ran on a platform emphasizing westward expansion and Manifest Destiny.
Key Outcomes: Polk won the election, advocating for the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of Oregon Territory. His administration's success in incorporating Texas into the Union in 1845 showcased the United States' expanding ambitions. Additionally, the resolution of territorial claims with Britain over the Oregon Territory at the 49th parallel highlighted the aggressive expansionist policies of the time.
Tensions with Mexico: An underlying source of conflict was the U.S. assertion of boundaries concerning Texas and the new territories, particularly surrounding the disputed areas between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River, which set the stage for further military confrontations.
The Mexican-American War
Prelude to War: In early 1846, President Polk issued secret orders to support military incursions in New Mexico and California, foreshadowing aggressive military action against Mexico.
Declaration of War: Following multiple skirmishes and reports of attacks on U.S. troops, Congress declared war on May 13, 1846, marking a significant escalation in U.S.-Mexico relations.
Major Events: The conflict featured notable military campaigns, including General Winfield Scott's tactical advancements that led to the capture of Mexico City in 1847. The war concluded with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, where Mexico yielded large territories, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, for a payment of $15 million, solidifying the U.S.-Mexico border at the Rio Grande.
Sectionalism and the Wilmot Proviso
In 1846, Representative David Wilmot proposed an amendment to prevent slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico, resulting in heightened sectional tensions. Although the Wilmot Proviso was ultimately rejected, it underscored the mounting opposition in the North against the spread of slavery. President Polk’s suggestion to extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific mirrored the increasing urgency to address the growing rift between North and South in Congress.
The Free Soilers Movement
The emergence of the Free Soil Party was a response to growing discontent among Northerners regarding the potential expansion of slavery into newly acquired territories. As political leaders failed to address the issue, many viewed the Southern influence on governance as undemocratic, particularly in light of the California Gold Rush's impact on migration and settlement.
California Gold Rush
The discovery of gold in California in 1848 transformed the demographic and economic landscape of the nation. The Gold Rush attracted an influx of prospectors and settlers, further intensifying debates over whether California would enter the Union as a slave or free state. The conflict over California’s admission as a free state magnified political tensions and conflict over the status of New Mexico, Oregon, and Utah.
Compromise of 1850
Henry Clay proposed a comprehensive series of measures designed to mitigate sectional tensions:
California was admitted as a free state, a contentious decision that altered the balance of power.
The slave trade was abolished in Washington, D.C., an important symbolic move.
New, stricter Fugitive Slave Laws were enacted, which faced fierce opposition in the North and led to widespread resentment and animosity.
The Compromise faced substantial challenges and resistance, delaying legislative negotiations until a more stable Senate leadership emerged following the death of President Zachary Taylor.
Crisis Deepens with Sectional Tensions
Post-Compromise of 1850, the political landscape was marked by growing discontent. The enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act alienated many Northerners, pushing citizens away from compromise and willingness to accept the tensions between free and slave states. Calls for a Transcontinental Railroad, with competing interests for the best routes further exacerbated the divisions between the North and South.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and 'Bleeding Kansas'
Senator Stephen A. Douglas promoted the Kansas-Nebraska Act, intending to facilitate railroad construction through the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The act’s implementation allowed the new territories to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty, igniting fierce disputes.
Emergence of Violence: The principle of popular sovereignty led to violent clashes between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in Kansas, a conflict known as 'Bleeding Kansas', foreshadowing the inevitable Civil War by illustrating the extremities of sectional conflict.
Death of Civility in Politics
Political discourse descended into chaos, exemplified by the caning of Senator Charles Sumner by Congressman Preston Brooks in 1856. This incident illustrated the deepening animosity and physical manifestations of political division. Pro-slavery advocates in the South propagated the argument that slavery was a "positive good," which further entrenched divisions and resistance against abolitionist sentiments.
Political Landscape Pre-Civil War
As sectional tensions intensified, the political landscape grew increasingly polarized. James Buchanan’s candidacy in 1856 aimed to unify fractured political factions, but he encountered overwhelming opposition. The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 became a flashpoint, as it represented the emergence of deeply divided political parties, prompting secessionist sentiments among Southern states who feared political marginalization and the rising influence of anti-slavery factions.
