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triangular trade: A trade route during the 16th centuries that exchanged goods between Europe, African, and the Americas. Africa provided enslaved Africans to America and America provided cash crops to Europe.

salutary neglect: Parliament laws and strict trade regulations on the colonies during the 1600s-1700s enforced by Britain.

Mercantilism: The more you sell, the more you trade but there is a fixed amount of wealth between different nations. The idea of a zero-sum game, if other countries are getting richer, you are getting poorer.

French and Indian War (Seven Years War): During the war between England and France in the mid-1700s, the British landed at Acadia and chased the Acadians out. The French were humiliated and sought revenge by helping the Americans in the American Revolution. They provided supplies like weapons, gunpowder, etc.

Treaty of Paris: The treaty that recognized the US as an independent nation. The US obtained fishing rights from Britain to the Grande Banks and provided for fair treatment of American citizens who remained loyal to Britain during the war.

Proclamation Line of 1763: A line drawn by Parliament intended to define the limit of British expansion. This line extended from northern to southern but western parts were off-limits to colonial settlement. The Indians were satisfied with the line but the colonists wanted to use the west.

Writs of Assistance: The power of authority to search cargo, ships, and warehouses which upset the colonists even more

King George III: Reigned from 1760-1820. Imposed British policies on the colonies in order to maintain British control over the colonies. His policies and actions symbolized oppression.

George Grenville: In 1763, King George III picked Grenville to handle the British finances. Despite the public demanding more freedom of the press, Grenville ordered the arrest of John Wilkes. He attempted to raise land taxes where wealthy English landowners refused to pay additional taxes.

Sugar Act: A law passed in 1763 to raise money from the colonies for Britain. This strengthened Britain’s control over the colonies and imposed a duty of three pence per gallon on molasses and high tax on sugar, molasses, and rum from foreign ports.

Currency Act: A law passed in 1764 that prohibited colonists from printing any more paper money and ordered them to withdraw existing paper money from circulation. British merchants complained that colonists were printing too much paper money and refused to provide sufficient backing of silver and gold which caused the runaway inflation.

Quartering Act: A law passed in 1765 that authorized army commanders in the colonies to demand supplies, build barracks for troops, and provide public buildings for them. The act forbade the army from taking over private homes but this still caused overcrowding.

Stamp Act: A law passed in 1765 that put attacks on anything printed with ink in the colonies and taxed newspapers, legal documents, playing cards, and more. This caused protests, written letters to the king, and marches with burning torches.

Sons of Liberty: An organization in Boston that formed to unite colonists against the Stamp Act

The Townshend Act: A series of laws passed in 1767 that taxed glass, paint, paper, and tea. Britain intended to raise revenue from the colonies in order to pay for military expenses. They enforced the act with the writs of assistance which allowed for searches of the colonists property. This led to protests, boycotts, and increased tensions.

Boston Massacre: British soldiers opened fire on a crowd of colonists on March 1770, killing 5 people. The soldiers were put on trial by the lawyer, John Adams.

Samuel Adams: A political leader and lawyer who sent a circular letter to all colonial assemblings proposing a united plea for repeal of the Townshend Duties. He organized committees of correspondence, led public protests, and used his writings to encourage colonists to fight for their independence.

Gaspée Affair: A British warship that controlled the waters off of Massachusetts to catch Dutch tea smugglers. The ship gets into strong tides and gets stuck on a sand bar where the Sons of Liberty most likely sets the boat on fire and burned it down.

Tea Act: A law passed in 1773 that waived the East India company’s obligation to pay import duties at English ports and permitted the company to sell tea directly to colonists. The Comittees of Correspondence called the act a onspiracy to abolish colonists’ economic and political liberties.

Intolerable Acts: Laws passed in 1774 that closed Boston’s port to combat the Boston Tea Party until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea. The governor restricted town meetings to one a year under his supervision. The Administration of Justice Act also permitted crown officials accused of serious crimes to be tried in courts in Britain.

First Continental Congress: The meeting on September 1774 in Philadelphia of each ambassador representing their specific colonies to fix their problems with the government. They argued that their rights had been violated but did not meet to discuss any rebellions or independence.

“The shot heard round the world”: The first unofficial world war, refers to the bloodshed of Lexington and Concord.

Lexington and Concord: In 1775, the Red Coats received orders to confiscate arms and ammunition where 600 men marched from Boston to Lexington & Concord. Paul Reveres takes a midnight ride to warn the colonists but was arrested before he could make it yelling “The Regulars are coming.” The colonists then ambushed the Red Coats as they marched back to Boston.

Battle of Bunker Hill: The first battle of the Revolutionary War in 1775 near Boston. The British had a pyrrhic victory because they lost around 1,000 while the colonists lost 450.

Second Continental Congress: In May 1775, the representatives assumes the role of a revolutionary government and names Washington as the commander of the Continental Army. The colonies had no constitutional power or political authority to do anything.

Continental Army: Washington and Adams presents a plan that addressed the objections to a standing army that congress should raise a Continental Army. A very high proportion of patriot adult males served in the army. The army marched far from home and men served fixed longer terms than the militia.

George Washington: The head of the new Continental forces, congress gives him a staff of major generals and voted to issue $2 million in paper currency to fund the troops. Washington and his troops suffered the challenges of winter conditions, starvation and supply shortages at Valley Forge. Washington used strategy, secret operations, and foreign assistance to stay alive.

Olive Branch Petition: On July 1775, The continental congress adopts this petition of peace. Professed loyalty to the crown and begged the King to prevent further hostilities but the King rejects it due to the victory of Bunker Hill. On August 1774, the King formally claims the colonies to be the rebellion.

King George III: Accepted the new Rockingham administration’s proposal to recognize American independence in March 1782.

Benjamin Franklin: Congress appointed him as postmaster general in charge of coordinating intercolonial communication. Franklin arrived in Paris as an unofficial liaison for Congress where he worked out two agreements with the French minister.

Common Sense: Written by Thomas Pain in 1776 that convinced many colonists to support the revolution because it was written in a simple and clear language.

Declaration of Independence: A detailed indictment of King George for cruelties and crimes that was signed by 56 members. All 56 members lost everything and had to hide. The phrase “all men are created equal” and the idea that the power of the government comes from the consent of the governed.

Hessians: German citizens and soldiers from the province of Hess who made a deal with Britain to fight for them in the war.

Robert Morris: One of the weathiest nationalist merchants in America, served as the superintendent of finance in 1781 and played a key role in improving the nation’s finances. He established the Bank of North America and issued certifcates backed by BNA funds which helped stablilize the currency and fund the military. Believed a weak central government caused economic instablity and proposed a national import tax.

Battle of Saratoga: On October 17, 1777, the British army marches down from Montreal. This is America’s first victory that brought France into the war to fight with the Americans.

Valley Forge: In the winter of 1777, the Continental Army wintered at Valley Forge became a severe test of military endurance and civilian support and was the defining moment of patriot commitment to political independence. Washington’s troops faced disease, hardships, cold, and supply shortages. The army emerged from Valley Forge better trained, more unified, and more discipline and it became a symbol of American resilience.

French Alliance, 1778: France started aiding America before the declaration of independence and supplied weapons, goods, and later committed to full support to America.

Loyalists: People who aligned with the British rule instead of the American Revolution. They faced hardships including violence, property seizures and fled their homes. They believed in maintaining British authority because of legal stablity, property protection, social hierarchy, and enslaved people were drawn to the British due to promises of freedom like the Dunmore’s Proclamation.

Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation: Enslaved people in the American colonies sought freedom and enlisted with Dunmore’s offer. This proclamation promised freedom to enslaved people who fought for the British against the American patriots.

“not worth a continental”: Worthless

Battle of Yorktown: On October 1781, The british troops led by Cornwallis, attacks Washington DC where the French Navy defeats them. Cornwallis surrenders.

Articles of Confederation: US’s first Constitution. Congress had no power to enforce the laws they passed and any state could ignore the federal law. There was only branch of government and congress had no power to levy taxes or regulate trade.

Gabriel Prosser: In 1800, the freeman attempted to lead a slave uprising in Virginia but authorities quickly suppressed the reveolt and hanged nearly forty slaves along with Prosser.

Confederation Congress (1781-1788): The Philadelphia Convention bought 55 delegates to address the weaknesses of the Confederation and propose a stronger federal structure. Critics believed the Confederation Congress was too unstable and weak.

Northwest Territory: To divide the Territory into ten territories and to guarantee settlers a constitution and government for their own choosing in each territory. Americans needed the territory’s river passage to export goods to southern and eastern markets quickly and cheaply. Future Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois to be admitted on an equal footing with the original states.

Land Ordinance of 1785: Delegates feared it would shift political power to newly populated areas so Jefferson submitted an additional Land Ordinance. It divided land into townships of 36 sections and reserved each section for a school and four sections for future public use.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Jefferson drafts the Northwest Ordiance and was passed in 1787. It aimed to orgnaize the northwest Territory into states with rights to self governance. The ordinance established that territories could become states once they reached a population equal to the smallest of the original states.

“Virginia Plan”: Drafted by Madison and proposed by Randolph, it proposed a strong national government with one central consolidated authority over the aggregate interest of all citizens. Bicameral legislature with representatives in both houses apportioned according to population. The legislature would choose the national executive and judicaicyand would have all the powers held by congress.

“New Jersey Plan”: Patterson introduces a small state plan that preserved the existing Conferation structure by requiring Congress to get certain revenues from state requisitions of money and goods. Allowed congress’s authority to tax domestic trade, imports, and regulate commerce.. Each state would have one vote in a unicameral Congress.

Connecticut Compromise: Sherman proposes this plan that accepted proportional representation for the lower house of Congress but gave each state equal representation in the upper house. Terms of office were shortened by 2 years for the house of representatives, 6 years for the Senate, 4 years for the executive. An electoral college with all of these individuals would choose the executive.

Federalism: The sharing of power between the states and the central government. The central government would create particular supreme laws enforceable by all individuals of the republic. It would levy and collect taxes, settle disputes among states, negotiate with foreign nations, and set the standards for citizenship.

“necessary and proper clause”: This elastic clause provoked many disputes in the future and some praised it as a green light for expansive government actions whereas others condemned it as a gift of excessive authority to national rulers.

“three-fifths compromise”: Representation in the lower house of Congress would be determined by each state’s free population plus three fifths of all other persons namely slaves.

The Federalist Papers: A series of influential essays by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay who systematically defended the Constitution and depicted a bold new vision of federal power and government structure.

Anti-federalists

Judiciary Act of 1789: Established a 6 justice Supreme Court, 13 district courts, and 3 courts that would hear cases appealed from the states. The power given to these courts was limited since federal judges did not preside over a uniform national code of civil and criminal justice but rather over the many bodies of state law.

Bill of Rights: Consists of the first ten amendements to the US Consitution proposed on June 1789. Antifederalists pressured for amendments to protect citizens’ rights so Madison gathered over 200 specific demands from state conventions and condensed them into 12 proposed amendments where 10 were ratified. The ratified amendments limited federal government powers, securing freedoms like speech, religion, and due process rights for American citizens.

“loose constructionist”: Loosely interprets the constitution. You can do anything that is not specifically forbidden by the Constitution.

“strict constructionist”: Strictly interprets the constitution. You can only do the things specifically allowed by the Constitution.

Northwest Indian War: From 1785-1795, 3 million people were living on 541 million acres of land. The Americans believed the Indians were conquered people because they were sided with the British. The battle of the Wabash was the greatest victory for Native Americans because 832 Americans were killed in one day.

Battle of Fallen Timbers: The last battle of North West Indian Wars by 1795, not massive numbers of bloodshed. Indians were forced to hand over much of their land with the Treaty of Greenville.

Treaty of Greenville: A treaty that was America’s tool to stealing Native Americans’ land. 12 Indian nations ceded the land that would become Ohio and Indiana.

Shays’s Rebellion: Daniel Shay leas and uprising of armed farmers. This rebellion revealed the weaknesses of Articles of Confederation. The new federal government was susceptible to mobocracy. The federal govnerment did not have the constitutional authority to use military forces against the rebels.

French Revolution: Many Americans applauded the French Revolution as a new experiment in republicanism and adopted the French term citizen as a leveling form of address. They associated it with greater possibilities for international commerce and world peace. The French executed thousands of church leaders and aristocrats from the monarchies of Prussia and Austria which was known as the Reign of Terror. The Hamilton supporters were disturbed when Louis XVI was beheaded. As the French Revolution began, white planters in St. Domingue demanded more freedom, sparking a widespread revolt among slaves and free blacks. This uprising grew into a bloody struggle, leading to Haiti’s independence in 1804.

John Adams: Attempted to negotiate compensation for losses and a more lasting peace with the French. He turned the affair of the federalists’ advantage by revealing to Congress the secret correspondence proving the French agents’ deceit which was called the XYZ Affair.

Jay’s Treaty: The Treaty with America and Great Britain. It worked well with the British and was bad for the Americans.

The “XYZ Affair”: In 1797, the XYZ Affair was a diplomatic conflict with France that invovled French demands for bribes from American diplomats which was exposed by Adams. He revealed the affair to build anti-French sentiment which strengthened the Federalist position. This led to an undeclared war at sea with France which increased political tensions and military spending.

Alien and Sedition Acts – 1789: A series of laws that targeted noncitizens and restricted speech critical of the government. Federalists sought to suppress Democractic Republicans and control pro-French sentiment tensions with France. They passed laws allowing the imprisonment/deportaion of noncitizens (Alien Act), increased residency requirements for citizenship (Naturalization Act) and banned seditious speech (Sedition Act).

“bloodless revolution” of 1800: Election of 1800, Republicans won the Executive and Legislative and the Federalists had to give up their powers

“midnight appointments” (aka: “midnight judges”):

John Marshall: Chief justice of the US Supreme Court who was a strong Federalist, appointed by John Adams. He was an advocate of using the political and economic power of the federal government and believed the Supreme Court shaped the destiny of the republic. One of his goals was to establish the principle of the Judicial Review. He asserted Federalist principles and implied nationalist powers of the Constitution.

judicial review: Established in 1803, grants the Supreme Court the authority to nulify laws that violate the Constitution. To create an independent check on the legislative and executive branches, ensuring laws adhere to constitutional principles.

Marbury v. Madison: Marbury sues to receive his commission as justice of the peace. The court ruled it was not appropirate to force the executive branch to deliver the comission but declared the judiciary’s authority to interpret the Constitution through judicial review where the Supreme Court established its power.

The American System: During the early 1800s, it was program promiting federal support for a national bank, protective tariffs, and infrastructure improvements like roads and canals. To strngethen the economy by promoting internal improvements, stable currency and protections for American industries against foreign competition by charting the Second Bank and passing a protective tariff.

Louisiana Purchase: In 1803, Jefferson wanted to buy New Orleans but Napolean offered the entire Lousiana Territory which doubled the size of the US and westward expansion. Jefferson believed it was America’s duty to secure the newly acquired lands and requested funding from Congress and gathered the Corps of Discovery with Lewis and William Clark to lead the expedition.

Aaron Burr: A Democractic-Republic leader that aimed to lead a northern secession and plotted to seize the Lousiana Territory. His political ambitions led to secessionist rumors and conspiracy. He ran for New York governor with the northern Federalists support, killed Hamilton in a duel, and conspired with Wilkinson. His plan to seize the territory failed and was tried for treason but acquitted.

James Wilkinson: Commanding General that partnered with Burr and conspired to seize the Lousiana Territory.

Lewis & Clark and the Corps of Discovery: Lewis and William Clark leads the Corps of Discovery commissioned by Jefferson. They explored the Lousiana Territory to map the land, establish trade, and gather scientific information. The expedition traveled from Pittsburgh to the Pacific.

Sacagawea: A Frenchmen and his wife helps the Corps of Disovery buy horses from other Native American villages and interpreted for the easterners.

Five Civilized Tribes: Native American tribes in the south called Cherokee, Chickasaw, creek, Choctaw, and Seminole tried to be civilized by learning English, learning American laws, owning land and being slave owners

Indian Intercourse Act of 1790: The government had to secure Indian lands by treaty not by conquest or seizure but land hungy whites interpreted this policy as confirming the federal govenrments right to aggressively take Indian land.

Cherokee National Council: Organized Cherokee villages under a central governing body, developing a legal code, and promoted literacy and self-sufficiency. Faced with settler encroachment and forced assimilation pressures, the Cherokee aimed to preserve their lands and culture by adopting with the white society.

Sequoyah: Came up with the Cherokee alphabet and printed the Cherokee newspaper.

Tecumseh: Shawnee leader that led his people into the Indian Territory. He convinced the alliance to actively resist further white migration into hunting lands and promoted hatred towards white people.

Tenskwatawa: Brother of Tecumseh, Spiritual Leader of the Shawnee Tribe known as the Shawnee Prophet. Died and had a vision. Preached about unity, rejecting white customs and returning to traditional ways of life.

Treaty of Ft. Wayne: The Delaware and Potawatomi ceded 3 million acres of land in Indiana.

Andrew Jackson: Tennessee militia commander that led the militia into Creek lands. He aimed to eliminate Native resistance and assert US dominance. Secured victory at Horsehow Bend, defeated British forces at New Orleans.

Battle of Horseshoe:

Bend Dr. Rush’s “bilious pills”:

Impressment: Forcing somebody to work, took by force

Chesapeake Affair: In 1807, the British forces attacked the Chesapeake, killing and wounding American sailors and forcibly taking four men, claiming them as deserters. Britain sought to recover sailors for its navy and assert its right to impress sailors, including Americans.

Embargo Act: The act that was passed in 1807 that prohibited American ships from trading in foreign ports to pressure Britain and France. Jefferson cut off American markets for British goods and denied the use of raw materials by British industries. This restricted exports which led to smuggling and economic depression.

James Madison

Non-Intercourse Act: The act that was passed in 1809 that reopened US trade with all nations except France and England. Madison reimposed sanctions on England leading to heightened tensions as England refused to compromise. This act sets the stage for the War of 1812.

Hartford Convention: New England Federalists proposed changes to US governance. The convention demanded limits on presidential powers, a one term presidency, and restrictions on national embargoes. The federalists opposed the war and sought to restore peaceful trade with Britain but their proposals damaged the Fedearlist Party’s reputation.

Treaty of Ghent: December 1814, the treaty fixed the prewar boundaries as the grounds for peace and the Democratice-Republicans faced a difficult task of gaining public support for this peace without more land.

Battle of New Orleans: On January 1815, Jackson leads his diversy army of American troops and defeats the British in a major battle. This increased the American morale and demonstrated what nation’s military strength.

Adams-Onís Treaty: The treaty signed in 1819 with Spain that transferred East Florida to the US and defined the boundary between Louisiana and Spanish territories. Adams leveraged Spain’s weakened position with the Seminole Indians.

Monroe Doctrine: Monroe advises Quincy Adams to issue the doctrine in December 1823. The Doctrine warned European nations against future colonization or interference in the Wester Hemisphere.

“middling sort”: A social group between the wealthy elite and the impoverished working class that consisted of lawyers, ministers, doctors, shopkeepers, artisans, and entrepreneurs. As cities developed, economic and occupational shifts created opportunities for a growing middle class seeking stability and respectability.

“republican wives”: Middle-upper class women were encouraged to become republican wives and mothers since they were seen as the moral guides for their families, instilling patriotism and curbing materialism in their families. Women were expected to manage households, educate children in republican values, and create a moral refuge.

Virginia’s Statutes of Religious Freedom: A statute authored and submitted by Jefferson that abolished Anglican privileges and made both church attendance and financial support for clergy voluntary. Jefferson sought to promote religious freedom and the law prohibited the collection of taxes for any church, allowing individuals to choose their religious affiliations freely.

Second Great Awakening: A wave of religious revivalism in the late 1700s that emphasized personal salvation, emotional spirituality, and independence form established church. The movement sought to adapt Christianity to the challenges of frontier life and provide moral guidance. This movement appealed to women and African Americans and was through camp meetings and sermons.

Cane Ridge, Kentucky: The five-day outdoor camp meeting that aimed to bring religious inspiration to frontier areas, promoting spiritual independence and personal salvation. Through intense sermons and physical displays of conversion, engaged in a highly emotion and communal religious experience.

Charles Grandison Finney: An influential preacher and revivalist during the Second Great Awakening. He led intense religious revivals, emphasizing personal conversion and moral reform that aimed to address the moral issues developing in canal towns.

National Road: Connected the eastern states to the Northwest Territory that aimed to improve transportation, support commerce, and unite distant regions of the growing country. Government funding extended the roads in segments, connecting towns and borderlands.

Robert Fulton: Partnered with Livingston and pinoreered the successful commercial use of steamboats. Their steamboat ventures allowed for faster and more reliable water travel and they aimed to improve internal commerce and connect distance markets through efficient travel.

Clermont: The first commercial steamboat to use steam propulsion, making river travel faster and more efficient by Fulton. Traveled up the Hudson River at an average speed of 5 miles per hour.

Gibbons v. Ogden: A case led by the Supreme Court about conflicts over monopolies hindering competition and development across state lines. The case determined that interstate waterways fell under federal control, limiting state-issued monopolies on waterway navigation. The court ruled that if a river crossed state borders, it constituted interstate commerce which was under federal jurisdiction.

Erie Canal: Completed in 1825, the canal that connected New York to the Great Lakes, creating a continuous water route to the Midwest and transforming regional trade and migration. Public promoters sought to make the region more prosperous by improving transportation to link with costal markets. Laborers and horse-powered machinery dug the canal, installed stone locks, and reinforced canal banks.

Oliver Evans: An American inventor and mill designer who revolutionized flour milling. He created mechanized systems for mills, using conveyor belts, leather buckets, pulleys, and rakes. He aimed to reduce labor costs and increase efficiency in milling.

interchangeable parts: Whitney, North, and Hall pioneered the concept of interchangeable parts. It allowed for standardized, uniform pieces to be mass-produced and easily replaced. The system led to the rise of machine shops and wage labors, shifting the production from small artisan shops to larger ones. This paved the way for mass production and making manufactured goods more affordable and accessible.

Eli Whitney: An American inventor who created the cotton gin in 1792 and interchangeable parts.

cotton gin: A machine that efficiently separated cotton fibers from seeds, drastically reducing labor in cotton processing. Whitney aimed to address the labor-intensive nature of cotton production and help planters meet growing market demands. The machine increased the demand for enslaved labor and boosted both southern agriculture and northern manufacturing.

Lynn, Massachusetts: The transformation of shoemaking in the 19th century as the putting-out system expanded. The putting-out system allowed farm families to earn additional income without significant investment, while merchants sought efficient low-cost productions Shoemaking shifted from skilled, craft-based production to piecework where women and children assembled shoes parts for wages.

Samuel Slater: Known as the “Father of the American Industrial Revolution”. An English-trained mechanic who established one of the first successful American textile factories. Slater launched his first textile mill in 1790 and introduced water-powred cotton spinning machinery, creating an efficient factory system that combined elements of the putting-out system with centralized production. He aimed to implement advanced British textile machinery.

Missouri Compromise: In 1820, the compromise allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining a balance in Congress between free and slave states. The admission of Missouri threatened to upset the balance of power in Congress and intensified sectional tensions over the expansion of slavery. It temporarily eased sectional tensions, enabling westward expansion while keeping the balance between free and slave states.“Death knell of the union” - Jefferson

Panic of 1819: America’s first major financial crisis with bank failures, foreclosures, bankruptcies, and high unemployment. Overextended credit, speculative land buying, and the national banks demand for specie to make foreign payments exposed the lack of financial safeguards. The Panic led to widespread poverty, auctions of farms of livestock, rising unemployment and a harsh economic downturn.