UNit 7.1 and 7.4

7.1 Power Shifts

Essential Question: How did internal and external factors contribute to change in various states after 1900?

A. intense period of rebellion continued into the early 1900s. Nicholas II, the last Russian tsar, clearly did not understand the force of the political opposition to his rule that resulted in his assassination in 1918. Inthe 20th century’s first two decades, rebellions erupted against long-standing authoritarian governments in Russia, China, and Mexico. Revolutionaries unseated ruling governments in each country, challenging the existing political and social order and instituting their own political philosophies and practices. Established land-based and maritime empires collapsed under pressure from internal and external forces. By the end of the century, a new global order had emerged.

Revolution in Russia

By the early 20th century, Russia was falling behind most of Europe, the United States, and Japan in wealth in power.

Russia’s most obvious challenges were internal. While governments in other industrializing states in the 19th century were actively promoting economic growth, Russia was not. It was slow to expand education for peasants, build roads and other parts of its transportation networks, and support entrepreneurs with loans and contracts. Further, the tsarist government resisted calls for political reform. It did was reluctant to recognize civil liberties and to allow more citizens to participate in government.

These internal problems led to external ones. Without a strong economic base to support a military, Russia then became weaker in international affairs:

e It lost the Crimean War (1853—1856) against the Ottoman Empire,, which was supported by Great Britain and France.

e It lost the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) in a battle for power in East Asia.

In the fall of 1917, the Bolsheviks, an organization representing the revolutionary working class of Russia under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, seized power and set up a communist government with Lenin at its head. The communists believed that workers eventually should own the means of production and that collective ownership would lead to collective prosperity and a just society. Toward that long-term goal, the Soviet government abolished private trade, distributed peasants’ crops to feed urban workers, and took over ownership of the country’s factories and heavy industries (see Topic 7.4)

Key Events Leading to Revolution in Russia

* Bloody Sunday, January 22, 1905: Thousands of workers marched peacefully to petition the tsar asking for better working conditions, higher wages, and universal suffrage. The tsar’s troops and police began shooting. About 1,300 marchers were killed.

* The Revolution of 1905: In strikes responding to Bloody Sunday, 400,000 workers refused to work. The tsar tried to appease the protesters. However, by the end, thousands of workers had been killed, injured, or exiled.

+ Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia and Japan both wanted to expand their influence in Korea and Manchuria. Japan won easily, the first time in modern history that an East Asian state had defeated a European power.

* World War I: Germany declared war on Russia in 1914. Russians quickly realized how poorly trained and armed their troops were. Civilians suffered from extreme food shortages.

The success of the Bolsheviks in taking power shook the world. They were the first example of communists running a large country. Throughout the capitalist world, from Europe to the United States to Japan, people worried that communists were a danger to their governments as well. The conflict between communism and capitalism would become an important issue shaping world affairs in the rest of the 20th century.

Upheaval in China

China was another land-based empire that collapsed in this period from problems it faced at home and from other countries. The Qing Dynasty had come to power in China in 1644. Finally, a revolution overthrew it in 1911, creating a republic led first by Dr. Sun Yat-sen. However, his rule was short.

Internal Challenges China faced daunting domestic concerns in the 19th century, each of which weakened support for the government. One of these was ethnic tension. China consisted of dozens of ethnic groups. The largest group was the Han. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty were Manchus, from a region northeast of China. Many Chinese, particularly the Han, never fully accepted the Qing as legitimate rulers of China. By the late 19th century, the Qing had tuled China for over two centuries, but they had remained ethnically distinct.

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A second problem was the constant danger of famine. China experienced rapid population growth between the mid-1700s and mid-1800s, but could not expand the amount of farmland or productivity rapidly enough to provide a stable food supply. Any natural disaster, such as a drought or a flood, could result in the early deaths of thousands of people.

Third, government revenues were very low. The imperial government had not updated the tax system to adjust to changes in the economy. As a result, compared to Europe or the United States, taxes in China were low. This meant that the government did not have the resources to maintain roads, bridges, and irrigation canals.

External Challenges China had been one of the wealthiest, most powerful, most innovative states in the world for much of its recorded history. However, starting in the late 18th century, it faced growing threats to its position by industrialization in Europe. In the late 18th century, Europeans interested in the Chinese market could trade only in the city of Canton (Guangzhou). Europeans commonly bought tea, rhubarb, porcelain, and silk. In Europe, Chinese fashions, table settings, and art objects were very popular. The Chinese received European silver in exchange for they sold. However, the Chinese did not desire the products Europeans produced, and they looked down on Europeans as violent and less civilized. In response to growing European influence in China, many Chinese did rally behind the empress in the 1890s.

Chinese Republic However the desire to support the empress against foreign pressure was not enough to save the Qing Dynasty. In 1911, the last Chinese dynasty was overthrown by a revolutionary movement led by Sun Yat-sen. Though a Christian, Sun believed that China should continued to follow such Confucian principles as loyalty, respect for ancestors, and efforts to promote social harmony. He combined these traditions with ideas he later elaborated upon in his book The Three People’s Principles:

e Democracy: Sun believed in sovereignty, not for all the people but for those Chinese who were “able.” In Confucian terms, this meant a country governed by active and pragmatic experts in the name of the people. He felt that expelling foreign capitalists from China would enable China to redistribute revenues from land taxes more fairly, since the revenues would not have to be used to pay debts to foreigners.

e Nationalism: Sun advocated patriotism and loyalty, primarily to central authority.

e Livelihood: Sun wanted to end the extreme unequal distribution of wealth in China and the harsh economic exploitation.

Sun Yat-sen’s Legacy Sun never had enough military strength to rule all of China. Various warlords controlled the majority of the country. Sun recognized the weakness of his position. After two months in office, he gave up his position to a military leader.

The party Sun led, the Chinese Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang, would later regain power. It would rule China for two decades before losing a civil war with Chinese Communists (see Topic 7.5).While both the Kuomintang and the Communists would honor Sun as the founder of the Chinese republic, neither would fully implement his principles.

Self-Determination in the Ottoman Collapse

By the beginning of the 20th century, the once-mighty Ottoman Empire— now “the sick man of Europe”—had relatively few exports and a waning agricultural economy. The empire relied mostly upon its position as a trade center. Egypt, by contrast, continued to make profits from cotton.

The Young Turks As Ottoman prosperity declined, a group of reformers known as the Young Turks emerged. They advocated for a constitution like those of the European states. They also advocated Turkification, an effort to make all citizens of the multiethnic empire identify with Turkish culture, which was heavily Islamic. For the millions of Armenians in the empire, who were mostly Christians, this was difficult. In response, some Young Turks scapegoated, or unfairly blamed, Armenians for the empire’s economic problems. (Connect: Compare the cultural assimilation forced on Armenians to that forced on American Indians. See Topic 6.3.)

Fight Against Foreign Influence Turks resented many Europeans, particularly the British and the French, for their economic policies. Foreign investments had given Europeans undue power in the empire. Further, Europeans had imposed trade privileges that were unprofitable for the Ottomans. Because of these resentments, the Ottoman Empire secretly allied with Germany in World War I. (See Topic 7.2.) After Germany’s defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled by the victorious powers. It was replaced by a smaller nation-state, the Republic of Turkey, and several independent countries.

Victorious Allied forces immediately sent troops to occupy Anatolia. Although the sultan of the Ottoman Empire remained on his throne, he had little power. He served as a mere puppet for British forces that hoped to control the lands of the former empire.

The Rise of Atatiirk During the war, a group called the Turkish National Movement organized an army to fight for self-determination. Led by Mustafa Kemal, the Turkish Nationalists defeated British and other forces in 1921. The Republic of Turkey was established in 1923, with Kemal as the first president. The new national assembly awarded him the surname Atatürk (“father of the Turks”) in recognition of his role in establishing the new republic.

Atatiirk’s policies focused on reforming Turkey to make it more like the Western democracies. He was determined to create a secular nation, not one with strong Islamic influences. He implemented several reforms: establishing public education for boys and girls, abolishing polygyny, and expanding

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suffrage to include women. As a symbolic gesture, he wore mainly Western suits and hats and encouraged others to do the same. Despite his reforms, he tuled as a dictator for 15 years. He did not give up power before his death in 1938.

Power Shifts in Mexico

Mexico entered the 20th century as an independent nation firmly under the control of a dictator, Porfirio Diaz. He oversaw a period of stability and some economic progress. However, he had allowed foreign investors, particularly those from the United States, control over many of the country’s resources. Additionally, the wealthiest 1 percent of the population controlled 97 percent of the land. Typical Mexican peasants were landless.

Revolution In 1910, Diaz jailed Francisco Madero, the opposition candidate for president. This act, combined with the growing opposition to Diaz’s strong-armed policies, accommodation to foreign powers, and opposition to land reform, ignited the Mexican Revolution. Madero escaped and set up revolutionary offices in El Paso, Texas. Then, in 1911, Madero’s troops, under the command of Francisco “Pancho” Villa, defeated Mexican troops, sending Diaz into exile. One revolutionary leader, Emiliano Zapata, began the actual process of redistributing land to impoverished peasants.

Until 1920, Mexico suffered from political instability and devastating violence. Between 1910 and 1920, conflict resulted in around 2 million deaths, out of a population of around 15 million people. Political violence continued for another decade. However, two results came out of conflicts between 1910 and 1930 that provided Mexico with stability for the rest of the century:

e Mexico adopted a new constitution in 1917. It included the goals of land redistribution, universal suffrage, and public education. These principles continued to guide Mexico’s government.

¢ The Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI, was formed in 1929. Though widely criticized as corrupt, the PRI dominated Mexican politics. Until 2000, all presidents were PRI members.

KEY TERMS BY THEME

CULTURE: Ethnic Conflict Young Turks GOVERNMENT: Leaders Turkification Mexican Revolution Sun Yat-sen GOVERNMENT: Politics Institutional Revolutionary Kemal Atatürk

Bolshevik communists

Party (PRI) Porfirio Diaz Francisco Madero Francisco “Pancho” Villa Emiliano Zapat

7.4 Economy in Interwar Period

Essential Question: How did different governments respond to economic crises after 1900?

Na long after the global trauma of World War I, a global economic crisis resulted in the Great Depression of the 1930s and eventually led to World War II. It undermined faith in the market-based economics that had delivered such wealth as imperialism spread. As unemployment, hunger, and homelessness increased, people turned to their governments for help. Governments had long been essential to capitalism—building roads, providing schools, and regulating trade—but across the world in the 1930s, government intervention in the economy increased. The United States became more liberal as President Roosevelt identified inequities and activities that undermined the economy and could lead to war. Countries such as Germany, Italy, and Japan, however, turned radically to the right. In Russia, government economic control was instituted through the implementation of often repressive Five-Year Plans based on production quotas.

The Great Depression

From today’s perspective, the effects of World War I can look small compared to the even greater destruction caused by World War II. However, the effects were massive. Many Western Europeans felt bewildered. World War I brought anxiety to the people who suffered through it. The Allied nations, though victorious, had lost millions of citizens, both soldiers and civilians, and had spent tremendous amounts of money on the international conflict. The defeated Central Powers, particularly Germany and the countries that emerged from the breakup of Austria-Hungary, suffered even greater losses.

The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to pay billions of dollars in reparations to the war’s victors. War-ravaged Germany could not make these payments, so its government printed more paper money in the 1920s.

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Source: German Federal Archive. Wikimedia Commons During the 1920s, German currency became worth so little that this man used it as wallpaper.

This action caused inflation, a general rise in prices. Inflation meant that the value of German money decreased drastically. To add to the sluggish postwar economy, France and Britain had difficulty repaying wartime loans from the United States, partly because Germany was having trouble paying reparations to them. In addition, the Soviet government refused to pay Russia’s prerevolutionary debts.

Global Downturn Although the 1920s brought modest economic gains for most of Europe, the subsequent Great Depression ended the tentative stability. Agricultural overproduction and the United States’ stock market crash in 1929 were two major causes of the global economic downturn. American investors who had been putting money into German banks removed it when the American stock market crashed. In addition to its skyrocketing inflation, Germany then had to grapple with bank failures. Germany thus suffered more than any other Western nation during the Great Depression. The economies of Africa, Asia, and Latin America suffered because they depended on the imperial nations that were experiencing this enormous economic downturn. Japan also suffered during the Depression because its economy depended on foreign trade. With the economic decline in the rest of the world, Japan’s exports were cut in half between 1929 and 1931.

The Global Economy, 1929 to 1938

Source: Adapted from data in Barry Eichengreen and Douglas Irwin, “The Protectionist Temptation: Lessons from the Great Depression for Today,” March 17, 2009.

In this chart, the levels of production and trade for 1929 are represented by 100. The other numbers reflect changes from the 1929 level.

Keynesian Economics The Great Depression inspired new insights into economics. British economist John Maynard Keynes rejected the laissezfaire ideal. He concluded that intentional government action could improve the economy. During a depression, he said, governments should use deficit spending (spending more than the government takes in) to stimulate economic activity. By cutting taxes and increasing spending, governments would spur economic growth. People would return to work, and the depression would end.

New Deal The administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt used Keynes’s ideas to address the Great Depression in the United States. Roosevelt and his backers created a group of policies and programs known collectively as the New Deal. Its goal was to bring the country relief, recovery, and reform: relief for citizens who were suffering, including the poor, the unemployed, farmers, minorities, and women; recovery to bring the nation out of the Depression, in part through government spending; and reform to change government policies in the hopes of avoiding such disasters in the future.

By 1937, unemployment was declining and production was rising. Keynesian economics seemed to be working. However, Roosevelt feared that government deficits were growing too large, so he reversed course. Unemployment began to grow again. The Great Depression finally ended after the United States entered World War II in 1941 and ran up deficits for military spending that dwarfed those of the New Deal programs.

Impact on Trade The Great Depression was a global event. Though it started in the industrialized countries of the United States and Europe, it spread to Latin America, Africa, and Asia. By 1932, more than 30 million people worldwide were out of work. People everywhere turned to their governments

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for help. As unemployment increased, international trade declined, a decline made worse as nations then imposed strict tariffs, or taxes on imports, in an effort to protect the domestic jobs they still had.

In contrast to most countries, Japan dug itself out of the Depression relatively rapidly. Japan devalued its currency; that is, the government lowered the value of its money in relation to foreign currencies. Thus, Japanese-made products became less expensive than imports. Japan’s overseas expansionism also increased Japan’s need for military goods and stimulated the economy.

Political Revolutions in Russia and Mexico

In the century’s first two decades, rebellions erupted against long-standing authoritarian governments in Mexico, China, and Russia. (See Topic 7.1.) Revolutionaries unseated the ruling governments in each country, instituting their own political philosophies and practices. The revolutions influenced subsequent events in the Soviet Union, Mexico, and China in the interwar years. Each country took a different approach to managing their national economy.

Continuing Revolution in Russia Although Lenin and the Bolshevik Party had promised “peace, land, and bread” during World War I, they instead presided over a populace that faced starvation during the widespread Russian Civil War (1918—1921). Hundreds of thousands of Russians, Ukrainians, and others revolted against the Russian government’s actions. Urban factory workers and sailors went on strike, and peasants began to hoard their food stocks. Industrial and agricultural production dropped sharply.

By 1921, Lenin realized that the Russian economy was near complete collapse. In an attempt to remedy this, he instituted a temporary retreat from communist economic policies. Under his New Economic Plan (NEP), he reintroduced private trade, allowing farmers to sell their products on a small scale. Although the government permitted some economic liberties, it maintained strict political control. The NEP enjoyed modest successes, but it came to an end when Lenin died in 1924.

Joseph Stalin Several years after Lenin’s death, Joseph Stalin took control of the Politburo, the Communist Party’s central organization, setting himself up as a dictator. He remained in power for almost 30 years. Once in power, Stalin abandoned Lenin’s NEP and instituted the first Five-Year Plan, which was meant to transform the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also called the USSR or the Soviet Union) into an industrial power. He wanted his largely agricultural nation to “catch up” to the industrial nations of the West. At the same time, Stalin collectivized agriculture, a process in which farmland was taken from private owners and given to collectives to manage. In theory, a collective, or kolkhoz, was a group of peasants who freely joined together to farm a certain portion of land. In practice, however, peasants were forced by the state to work on a specific collective and were expected to follow detailed plans and to reach specific goals set by the government

This elimination of private land ownership and the forced redistribution of land, livestock, and tools enraged farmers. Each year, the government seized food to send to the cities. The farmers retaliated against collectivization by burning crops and killing livestock. Many moved to the cities for a better life.

A series of five-year plans had mixed results. The collectivization of agriculture was a huge failure. Millions of peasants starved to death, especially in the Ukraine. However, heavy industry grew tremendously in the 1930s. Although consumer goods were in short supply, there were plenty of factory jobs available, and the cost of living was low.

Stalin’s brutal regime is widely condemned today. He punished his political opponents by executing them or sentencing them to life terms in gulags, or labor camps, where many died. In addition, his agricultural policies led to the deaths of many millions of Soviet citizens. Because Stalin kept tight control of the press, details of his atrocities went largely unreported. Nonetheless, in the 1930s, an economically depressed world viewed the U.S.S.R. with a mix of horror and wonder. The USSR was rapidly industrializing and increasing its military power. It presented a challenge to countries with capitalist economies whose people were experiencing high levels of unemployment. (Connect: Write a paragraph connecting the USSR with the ideology of Marxism. See Topic 5.8.)

Party Rule in Mexico The economy took a different direction in Mexico. The Mexican revolution saw the emergence of one strong political party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI. This party dominated Mexican politics for most of the 20th century. The Mexican political system has often been called corporatist since the ruling PRI party claimed favors, such as access to primary education and jobs created through improvements to infrastructure, for its constituents.

During PRI’s rule, there was a vast improvement in the economy, especially in the period from 1930 to the 1970s. In the 1930s, efforts at land reform were successful under Lazaro Cardenas. In 1938, for example, his regime nationalized the country’s mostly foreign-owned oil industry, angering foreign investors. This company, Petróleos Mexicanos or PEMEX, became the second largest state-owned company in the world. Despite these reforms, however, the interwar period did not see dramatic changes in Mexico’s social hierarchy.

Rise of Right-Wing Governments

In some countries, the turn to the right was radical. A new political system known as fascism arose that appealed to extreme nationalism, glorified the military and armed struggle, and blamed problems on ethnic minorities. Fascist regimes suppressed other political parties, protests, and independent trade unions. They justified violence to achieve their goals and were strongly anticommunist. Germany turned to fascism (see Topic 7.6), and some other countries did as well.

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Rise of Fascism in Italy Benito Mussolini coined the term fascism, which comes from the term fasces, a bundle of sticks tied around an axe, which was an ancient Roman symbol for authority. This symbol helped characterize Italy’s Fascist government, which glorified militarism and brute force.

The Italian fascist state was based on a concept known as corporatism, a theory based on the notion that the sectors of the economy—the employers, the trade unions, and state officials—are seen as separate organs of the same body. Each sector, or organ, was supposedly free to organize itself as it wished as long as it supported the whole. In practice, the fascist state imposed its will upon all sectors of society, creating a totalitarian state—a state in which the government controls all aspects of society.

Mussolini Takes Control Even though Italy had been considered one of the victors at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference—along with Britain, France, and the United States—Italy received very little territory from the Treaty of Versailles. This failure to gain from the war caused discontent in Italy. Amid the general bitterness of the 1920s, Mussolini and his allies in the Fascist Party managed to take control of the parliament. Mussolini became a dictator, repressing any possible opposition to his rule. Militaristic propaganda infiltrated every part of the Fascist government. For example, schoolchildren were taught constantly about the glory of their nation and their fearless leader, “Tl Duce.”

Part of Mussolini’s fascist philosophy was the need to conquer what he considered an inferior nation. During the imperialist “Scramble for Africa” in the 19th century, Italy seized Libya and colonized Italian Somaliland, now part of Somalia. However, the Italian army was pushed back by Abyssinia, modern-day Ethiopia, in the 1890s. In 1934, Mussolini called for the complete conquest of Abyssinia. In 1935, 100,000 Italian troops crossed the border from Somaliland to Abyssinia, defying sanctions from the League of Nations. This time, the Italian army overpowered Abyssinia’s while the global community did little to stop the conquest. Many historians believe the Abyssinian crisis destroyed the League of Nations’ credibility. In 1936, Mussolini and Germany’s Adolf Hitler formed an alliance they hoped would dominate Europe.

Fascism and Civil War in Spain After the economic decline in the early 1930s, two opposing ideologies, or systems of ideas, battled for control of Spain. The Spanish Civil War that resulted soon took on global significance as a struggle between the forces of democracy and the forces of fascism.

The Spanish Republic formed in 1931 after King Alfonso VII abdicated. In 1936, the Spanish people elected the Popular Front, a coalition of leftwing parties, to lead the government. A key aspect of the Front’s platform was land reform, a prospect that energized the nation’s peasants and radicals. Conservative forces in Spain, such as the Catholic Church and high-ranking members of the military, were violently opposed to the changes that the Popular Front promised. In July of the same year, Spanish troops stationed in Morocco conducted a military uprising against the Popular Front. This action marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, which soon spread to Spain itself. General Francisco Franco led the insurgents, who called themselves Nationalists. On the other side were the Republicans or Loyalists, the defenders of the newly elected Spanish Republic.

Foreign Involvement Although the nations of Europe had signed a nonintervention agreement, Hitler of Germany, Mussolini of Italy, and Antonio Salazar of Portugal contributed armaments to the Nationalists. Civilian volunteers from the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States, and France contributed their efforts to the Loyalists. Many historians believe that without the help of Germany, Italy, and Portugal, the Nationalist side probably would not have prevailed against the Republic of Spain.

Guernica The foreign involvement in Spain’s struggle also escalated the violence of the war. One massacre in particular garnered international attention. The German and Italian bombing of the town of Guernica in northern Spain’s Basque region was one of the first times in history an aerial bombing targeted civilians. Many historians believe that the bombing of Guernica was a military exercise for Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe.

The tragedy of Guernica was immortalized in Pablo Picasso’s painting of that name, commissioned by the Republic of Spain and completed in 1938. Although abstract, the painting brilliantly depicts the horrific violence of modern warfare and is one of the most significant works of 20th-century art.

Source: Museo Reina Sofia

Pablo Picasso, Guernica (1937)

Franco’s Victory The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) ended when Franco’s forces defeated the Loyalist army. He ruled Spain as a dictator until his death in 1975. Spain did not officially enter World War I (1939-1945), but the government offered some help to Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Rise of a Repressive Regime in Brazil As in Europe, parts of Latin America also became more conservative. During the interwar years, Brazil was considered Latin America’s “sleeping giant” because of its slow shift

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from an agricultural to an industrial economy. Large landowners dominated the nation’s economy, which frustrated members of the urban middle class. Compounding their frustration was the workers’ suffering caused by the Great Depression. Discontent led to a bloodless 1930 coup, or illegal seizure of power, which installed Getulio Vargas as president.

Vargas’s pro-industrial policies won him support from Brazil’s urban middle class. They believed he would promote democracy. However, his actions paralleled those of Italy’s corporate state under Mussolini. While Brazil’s industrial sector grew rapidly, Vargas began to strip away individual political freedoms. His Estado Novo (“New State”) program instituted government censorship of the press, abolition of political parties, imprisonment of political opponents, and hypernationalism, a belief in the superiority of one’s nation over all others and the single-minded promotion of national interests. While these policies were similar to those of European fascists, the Brazilian government did not praise or rely on violence to achieve and maintain control.

Moreover, even though Brazil had close economic ties with the United States and Germany in the late 1930s, Brazil finally sided with the Allies in World War II. This political alignment against the Axis powers made Brazil look less like a dictatorship and more liberal than it actually was. World War II prompted the people of Brazil to push for a more democratic nation later. They came to see the contradiction between fighting fascism and repression abroad and maintaining a dictatorship at home.

Three Approaches to Modern Industrial Society

Economics Believed that Believed that Believed that businesses should businesses should businesses should be owned or be owned privately | be owned privately managed by the and compete with and government government each other should restrict

competition

Internationalism Supported Supported Supported and Nationalism internationalism a mixture of nationalism strongly by opposing nationalism and by urging each

colonialism and internationalism nation to pursue its calling for global unique interests worker solidarity

War and Peace Believed that Expressed mixed Opposed peace international peace | attitudes toward on the belief that it would follow the war and peace weakened society defeat of capitalism

Equality Supported both Supported political | Opposed both political and equality but not political and economic equality economic equality economic equality

Religion Advocated atheism | Allowed individual Use religion to build

religious liberty nationalism