Untitled Flashcards Set

Can you fly on a straight path between Chicago and New Orleans? - No because of the Coriolis effect.

What does global climate depend on? - the balance of energy fluxes

(flows) into and out of the climate system (made up of the atmosphere, oceans,

ice masses, biosphere andgeosphere).

What causes variations in Solar Radiation on Earth? -

1. Daytime – night time cycle

2. Seasonal changes (Tilt of the Earth’s rotational axis, not its elliptical orbit, causes the Earth to have seasons).

3. Latitudinal affects

4. Average daily solar radiation values at different latitudes during the year

Heat distribution - heat is gained at equatorial latitudes, while heat is lost at higher latitudes, so winds & ocean currents re-distribute heat around the Earth. Oceans don’t boil away near the equator or freeze solid near the poles b/c heat is transferred by winds & ocean currents from equatorial to polar regions.

Name the four layers of the atmosphere and their composition:

Troposphere (precipitation, evaporation, winds, & clouds all here); Stratosphere (the ozone layer is mainly the stratosphere); Mesosphere (little to no absorption of solar radiation, so lowest temperature); Thermosphere (very hot with little oxygen)

What are the Major gasses in the atmosphere? Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2.

Coriolis Effect - As Earth rotates, different latitudes travel at different speeds. The change in speed with latitude causes the Coriolis effect. The bending of currents in air due to Earth’s rotation. Winds bend to the right in the north and to the left in the south.

What are the Atmospheric Circulation and Wind Belts of the World?

Trade Winds (between about 0° and 30° latitude. These winds blow from east to west); Westerlies ( west toward the east, between about 30° and 60° latitude); Polar Easterlies (from about 60° latitude to the poles (90°).These winds blow from east to west)

What is the Circulation of Earth’s Atmosphere in 6-Band Wind System 3 in each hemisphere? - Tropical Zone (Trade winds), Middle Zone (Westerlies), and Polar Zone (Polar Easterlies).

The Air Masses in North America (Cold and most near Seattle and Vermont, cold and dry near Canada, hot and dry near Mexico, warm & most to the left and right of Mexico.

Maritime Polar (mP) Air Mass on the West Coast and the East Coast (West Coast is more common and less cold than the East). West is brought from Asia while East is brought from high pressure from the North moving to the South.

Annual range of mid-ocean sea surface temperatures - 25 to 30 degrees Celsius

High-pressure versus Low-pressure systems in the atmosphere: High pressure wind blows outward and clockwise, while low pressure wind blows inward and counterclockwise.

Monsoon systems in India and the Indian Ocean

Seasonal reversals in wind patterns associated with monsoon systems over India Daily ocean–lower atmosphere interactions

Rain shadow: Sierra Nevada Mountains, Andes in South America & Himalaya in Asia

2. Surface and deep ocean currents

What does the Gulf Stream do for the British Isles? The Gulf Stream brings warm water across the Atlantic, which heats the air above it. This warm air then blows over the British Isles, making the climate there milder, especially in winter. So, even though the British Isles are quite far north (similar to chilly parts of Canada), they stay relatively warm.

Surface currents vs. Deep Currents

Surface currents are 10% of total ocean water while deep currents are 90% of total ocean water. Surface currents are wind-driven, move faster, and primary move horizontally. Deep currents are moved by differences in density (temperature and salinity based), moves sluggish, & vertical/horizontal motions.

Wind-driven surface currents surface currents follow global wind patterns (so westerlies bring water to the east, etc.).

Subtropical gyres and their characteristics: there is one in each ocean basin (north/south pacific, north/south atlanctic, and indian) and they are basically winds and water that move in a circular direction.

Ekman spiral and Ekman transport

What controls Ekman spiral?

Broadly, caused by winds and the coriolis effect. More in depth, winds drives surface water in a direction 45 degrees to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere. Deeper water continues to deflect to the right & moves at a slower speed with increased depth because of frictional influence, causing the spiral.

What is Ekman transport?

The net transport of water by wind. Ideal transport is 90 degrees from the wind, transport direction depends on the hemisphere (left in south and right in north). The transport is proportional to wind speed, the faster the speed, the higher the ekman transport.

Geostrophic flow & western intensification

Different components of the Geostrophic flow and their characteristic features

Narrow and strong current on the west side and wide/sluggish current on the east side because of coriolis effect and gravitational force.

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Currents and climate: Impact of ocean currents on continental climate – how do they vary? Upwelling & downwelling zones in oceans

Warm ocean surface currents warm the air, which creates high water vapour and humid coastal climate. Cool ocean surface currents cool the air, which results in low water vapour and dry coastal climate.

What processes control upwelling & downwelling areas along continental margins? Ekman transport, where moving surface water away from the shore causes upwelling and moving water towards the shore produces downwelling.

Equatorial upwelling: What processes drive it? Trade winds and coriolis effect drive it. Upwelling produces abundant marine life because cold, nutrient-rich water moves to the surface.

3. El Niño, La Niña & NAO; Deep Ocean Currents

Why does the seawater get so warm off the coast of Peru & Central America every ~7 to 8 years?

This is because normally, in the western pacific, a low pressure system creates warm & moist air to rise and produces heavy precipitation. While high pressure air sinks off the coast of south america, creating dry and cold weather. However, when the trade winds weaken, that warm water is no longer pushed west and instead seeps back eastward towards South America. This warm water causes precipitation, causing lots of rainfall to hit this area and the reverse to happen to the western pacific (no rainfall). El nino causes upwelling to stop in south america, which makes the fish go away. Average sea level also increases and water becomes way warmer.

La nina is the reverse, where very large pressure gradient across the pacific causes stronger trade winds, which pushes even more hot water to the west, making it extra cold in the eastern pacific. La nina causes upwelling off the coast of South America. Also causes floods in Australia since so much water is going that way.

Normal atmospheric conditions during NON – El-Niño years

Unusual atmospheric conditions during El-Niño years

Unusual atmospheric conditions during La Niña years

El-Niño recurrence interval - el nino happens every 2-12 years. Right after el nino la nina events happen. El nino lasts 12-18 months and are then followed by a similar length la nina event. Increased ocean temperatures induce more frequent and more severe ENSO events.

Effects of El Niño Events -alter jet streams in the atmosphere and also causes severe weather irregularities (flooding, droughts, etc.). WCD WCD WCD

What was the ENSO Status in 2020?

What is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) - climate pattern that influences North American weather.

Surface ocean currents in the Indian Ocean: Why are they significant for the global climate?

By regulating temperatures, influencing monsoons, and interacting with global currents, the Indian Ocean’s surface currents are an integral part of the Earth’s climate system.

Deep ocean characteristics -salinity and temperature helps identify deep currents.

Identification of deep ocean currents

Atlantic Ocean subsurface water masses

The convection process in the North Atlantic

Deep/bottom water formation sites -in the North and south Poles.

Name a deep ocean current! -Antartic Bottom Water

Ocean Circulation Patterns and Climate - The oceans are responsible for warmer temperatures on the west coasts of the continents compared with the east coasts.

4. Waves and Tsunamis

Why does the ocean have waves? Because of winds and the moon.

Wave generation

Ocean waves, atmospheric waves and Internal waves

Wave energy and wave types

Wave movement and characteristics of orbital waves

Wave base, steepness, period, and frequency

Shallow versus deep water waves

Speed of deep-water waves & relationships between L, T & S

Transitional waves

Sea and swell

Wave heights

Wave energy

Waves in the surf zone

Waves breaking as they approach the shoreline; breakers

Wave refraction

Definition of tsunami

What causes tsunamis? Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.

Tsunami characteristics

Tsunami destruction

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

5. Coastal processes & shoreline types

Why are there so many barrier islands off the coast of the eastern USA?

Because the coast of the Eastern USA is a primary coast, so it is formed by terrestrial processes instead of marine ones. So these processes are more prone to causing barrier islands, which is why there are so many off the east coast of the USA.

Classification of coasts: Primary versus secondary coasts

Primary coasts are young coasts formed & dominated by terrestrial processes and influences. For example, land erosion coasts, coasts built out by land processes, volcanic coasts, and coasts shaped by earth movements (tectonic uplift, earthquakes).

Secondary coasts are older coasts that have been changed by marine influence & processes. For example, waves and currents, stream erosion, abrasion of wind-driven particles, freeze/thaw cycles, and slumping/cliff collapse.

General features of coasts

Shore – the zone that lies between the low tide line and the highest area on land affected by storm waves.

Coast – extends inland as far as ocean related features are found

Coastline – boundary between shore and coast

Backshore – part of shore above high tide shoreline

Foreshore- part of shore exposed at low tide and submerged at high tide

Shoreline- water’s edge that migrates with the tide

Nearshore- extends seaward from low tide shoreline to low tide breaker line

Offshore- zone beyond low tide breakers

Beach- wave-worked sediment deposit of the shore area. Area of beach above shoreline often called the recreational beach

Wave-cut bench- flat, wave-eroded surface

Berm- dry, gently sloping, elevated beach margin at the foot of coastal cliffs or sand dunes

Beach face- wet, sloping surface extending from berm to shoreline. Also called low tide terrace

Longshore bars- – sand bars parallel to the coast. May not always be present and Can cause approaching waves to break

Longshore trough- separates longshore bar from beach face

Composition of Beaches - Formed from locally available material (boulders from local cliffs, sand/mud from rivers, etc.). May be coarse or fine-grained sediments. There can also be significant biological material on tropical beaches. Material is always in transit along the shoreline.

Sand Movement Along Beach:

Perpendicular to shoreline (toward and away):

Swash – water rushes up the beach –

Backwash – water drains back to the ocean

Parallel to shoreline (up-coast or down-coast):

Longshore current – transports sand along the beach

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Beach profiles - a cross section of the beach along a line that is perpendicular to the shoreline.

Summer versus winter beach profiles :

Summer

-Light wave activity (Wide, sandy berm – Steep beach face – Swash dominates)

• Longshore bars not present

• Generally milder storms

Winter:

Heavy wave activity (Backwash dominates – Sediment moved away from shore – Narrower beach – Flattened beach face)

• Longshore bars are present

• Stormy weather

Longshore currents -

Transport beach sediment in a zigzag fashion in the direction of the longshore current,

• Occurs in the surf zone

Sand budget of beaches

Inputs + Outputs = Balance

Erosional Shores

Sea arches, Sea stacks, Headlands, Wave-cut cliffs, Sea caves, Marine terraces

– Well-developed cliffs

– Exist where tectonic uplift of coast occurs

– U.S. Pacific coast is one example

Depositional Shores

Coastal dunes, Bay barrier or bay mouth bar, Tombolo, Barrier islands, Spit

– Gradually subsiding shore

– Barrier islands and sand deposits are common.

Which oceanside would you go in the USA (Pacific or Atlantic) for the best beach experience? Why? I would choose the Atlantic because their depositional shores are a lot more relaxing and give off more of a beachy-vibe than the very steep erosional shores on the Pacific coast.

6. Deltas and estuaries - kidneys of the oceans

Why are most deltas around the world sinking? This is because a combination of man-made factors; for example, dams are blocking sediments, with sealevels rising, and oil and gas extraction in these delta areas, it causes a lot of these areas to start sinking and going away.

Definition of delta - An emergent accumulation of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into a standing body of water.

Components of a delta & sediment types in deltas - Three components of a delta: delta plain, delta front, and prodelta. You find topset beds, forest beds, and bottomset beds.

What happens to deltas in the absence of sufficient sediment supply? They sink and disappear. Also, large storms will carry the sediments away and with them not being replaced by sediments, the land will start to disappear / sink.

The Mississippi Delta

Ancient & modern courses of the Mississippi Delta - The delta has moved all across time. It is a very large and important delta.

Progressive development of the Mississippi Delta over time - It is currently sinking.

Deltas are vulnerable and under threat in present time - Civilization thrives by delta - cover 1% of Earth’s surface but are home to 500 million people. They are highly susceptible to climate change impacts such as sea level rise, salinity intrusion, as well as more extreme flooding/cyclones. The major world deltas are sinking due to compaction, up-streamdam construction, and mineral extraction.

Definition of estuary -Semi-enclosed bodies of water where fresh water from the land mixes with sea water. Estuaries originate as drowned river valleys, fjords, bar-built estuaries, etc. Salinity typically grades from normal marine salinity at the tidal inlet to fresh water at the mouth.

Types of estuaries based on their origins: drowned river valleys, fjords, bar-built estuaries, and tectonic estuaries

Types of estuaries based on the relative importance of river inflow and tidal mixing: (a) Salt-wedge estuaries; (b) Partially-mixed estuaries; (c) Well-mixed estuaries

-Salt-wedge estuaries are dominated by the outflow from rivers.

-Partially-mixed estuaries are dominated by neither river inflow nor tidal mixing.

- In well-mixed estuaries tidal turbulence destroys the halocline and water stratification.

Because river discharge and tidal flow vary, conditions within an estuary can also change, being well-mixed when river flow decreases relative to tidal mixing, to becoming a salt-wedge estuary at times of maximum river discharge.

Widely fluctuating environmental conditions in estuaries make life stressful for organisms Major Threats to Estuaries

Estuaries are extremely fertile because nutrients are brought in by rivers and recycled from the bottom because of the turbulence. Stressful conditions and abundant nutrients result in low species diversity, but great abundance of the species present. Despite abundance of nutrients, phytoplankton blooms are irregular, and the base of the food chain is detritus washed in from adjacent salt marshes. The benthic fauna strongly reflects the nature of the substrate, and most fishes are juvenile forms living within the estuary until they mature and migrate to the ocean.

7. Marine pollution & environmental issues

Definition of marine pollution -Introduction of substances into a marine environment by humans, resulting in harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to activities including fishing, impairment of quality for use of seawater.

Causes and consequences of marine pollution -Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural, and residential waste, particles, noise, excess CO2 or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harm.

Two main types of marine pollution: Nutrient pollution and Marine debris

Nutrient pollution -emanates from diverse sources including agricultural runoff and sewage/wastewater discharges.

Non-point source pollution types

Controlling non-point source pollution

Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico; Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone

Marine debris -Trash and other solid material that enters the ocean.

Plastic trash problem in the ocean - kills and cripples marine animals. These plastics also take forever, so they pile up in the ocean.

Eastern Pacific garbage patch Huge garbage match in the middle of the Pacific. 110 million tonnes of floating plastic.

Microplastics in the ocean

Marine wetlands and their environmental problems

What is the most devastating marine pollution type? Plastic pollution, particularly microplastics. Plastics do not biodegrade; instead, they break down into smaller and smaller pieces known as microplastics. These particles can persist in the environment for hundreds to thousands of years. They’re in every corner of the Earth, have toxic chemicals in them, harm marine life, and is just all around horrible for the environment.

8. Marine environments and marine life

Why are the oceans more stable for life than the land? This is because water has such a high heat capacity and the ocean just spreads the temperature around; if water gets hotter, it will just move to other parts of the ocean, so that just means that the temperatures of the ocean stay pretty constant.

Environmental zones: Pelagic versus Benthic Groups of Organisms

Pelagic- water environment: neritic zone: above the continental shelf (open ocean)

Benthic - seafloor environment

Classification of Marine Organisms based on their habitats

Planktons (floaters), Nektons (swimmers) and Benthos (bottom dwellers)

Types of planktons - phytoplankton and zooplankton

Types of nektons -fish

Types of benthos - crabs, coral, etc.

Epifauna (on surface of seafloor), Infauna (burrow and live in sediments) and Nektobenthos - Live near the seafloor, but they swim above it.

Filter, suspension and deposit feeders

Filter feeders sieve water to capture food

Deposit feeders ingest sediments

Suspension feeders -They suspend in the water and wait for food to pass them and they eat it.

What is your favourite nekton as seafood?

I really don’t like seafood at all, especially fish, but I will eat salmon if it is done correctly.

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Would you like to consume an epifauna OR an infauna benthic seafood? Why?

I really hate seafood, but if I had to choose definitely epifauna because lobsters and crab are epifauna (and are technically more expensive, so I’m hoping they were taste better) while clams and mollusks are infauna benthic. I despise clams; they are literally my least favorite food in the world, so epifauna wins automatically.

Factors Influencing Marine Life

Dissolved gases

Light and Water Transparency;

Defense Mechanisms

Temperature & Marine Life

Cold versus warm water organisms

Cold water:

Floating organisms are smaller in warm water than in cold water.

Warm-water species have ornate plumage to increase surface are, which cold water do not have.

Tropical species grow faster, reproduce earlier, and more frequently.

More species in warm waters, but the total biomass in cold waters greatly exceeds warm waters.

Stenothermal versus Eurythermal organisms

Temperature & metabolism: Poikilothermic versus Homoethermic organisms

: poikilothermic means cold blooded, so their bodies don’t regulate temperatures; they need to eat a lot of food to make up for that. Homethermic means warm-blooded, so the body regulates its own temperature.

Salinity Adaptation

Stenohaline versus Euryhaline Organisms

Stenohaline can only tolerate small variations in water salinity. Euryhaline organisms aren’t hardly affected by salinity fluctuations and can withstand large changes in salinity. Mostly found in estuaries.

Hypotonic versus Hypertonic fish

Hypotonic fish are less salty than their environment, so they constantly drink ocean water and excrete the salts through special cells in their gills. They pee very little highly concentrated urine.

Hypertonic fish are more salty internally as compared to the water that surrounds them. So, these fish do not drink water and their cells have the capacity to absorb salt so they don’t intake excessive quantities of water to rupture their cells. They excrete large volumes of urine to reduce the amount of water in their cells.

What would happen to a goldfish if you put him in seawater?

He would die very shortly. In seawater, the salt concentration is much higher than the goldfish’s body, which would cause water to leave the goldfish’s cells and move into the surrounding environment. So, the fish would get really dehydrated. Also, goldfish absorb salts from the environment through their gills and with so much salt in the sea water, they would likely intake way too much salt and would most likely cause a lot of rupturing.

Figures & Illustrations with Significant Concepts

• Sketch a simple Earth diagram showing the Northeast Trade Winds, Prevailing Westerlies and Polar Easterlies, and their correct directions, with the right latitude zones clearly marked. • Sketch a Wet Summer monsoon over India, clearly marking the wind direction and the High and Low Pressure zones over the land and the Indian Ocean. For simplicity, use an upside-down triangle for the shape of India.

• Sketch a profile of an erosional shoreline and show sea arches, sea stacks, and sea cliffs on it. • Draw a simple diagram, depicting a mountain system by an ocean along a continental margin and show where a rain shadow may occur. Make sure to mark the areas of heavy precipitation and dry / arid climate zones on your diagram.

• Draw a simple summer beach profile and show its characteristic features. SAMPLE EXAM QUESTIONS – DEFINITIONS & CONCEPTS:

(1) What is a longshore current?

A longshore current is a current that flows parallel to the shore, driven primarily by waves hitting the coastline at an angle. This current transports sand and sediments along the coast, contributing to coastal erosion and the formation of features like sandbars and spits.

(2) What is a tsunami?

A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves caused by underwater disturbances such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, or meteorite impacts. These waves can travel at high speeds across the ocean and cause severe flooding and destruction when they reach coastal areas.

(3) Why are tsunami surges so dangerous for densely populated shorelines?

Tsunami surges are dangerous because they can inundate coastal regions with little warning, bringing massive waves that can reach several meters in height. These surges carry enormous energy, causing widespread flooding, demolishing infrastructure, and resulting in high casualty rates in densely populated areas.

(4) Define delta.

A delta is a landform at the mouth of a river where it deposits sediment as it flows into a slower-moving or standing body of water like an ocean or a lake. Deltas are often characterized by branching channels and are rich in nutrients, making them fertile areas for agriculture and diverse ecosystems.

(5) Define estuary.

An estuary is a coastal area where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with saltwater from the ocean. Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems that serve as nurseries for many marine species and provide crucial habitats for birds, fish, and other wildlife.

(6) Define marine pollution.

Marine pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances or energy into the marine environment, resulting in negative impacts on marine life, ecosystems, and human health. Common pollutants include plastics, oil, chemicals, and agricultural runoff.

(7) Why are nonpoint source pollution types potentially more harmful than point source pollution types?

Nonpoint source pollution (e.g., agricultural runoff, urban stormwater) is diffuse and widespread, making it harder to control and regulate compared to point source pollution (e.g., discharges from factories or sewage treatment plants). This widespread pollution can degrade large areas of water bodies, impacting ecosystems more extensively.

(8) What is the El Niño event?

El Niño is a climate phenomenon characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. It disrupts typical weather patterns, leading to extreme weather events like increased rainfall, floods, and droughts in different parts of the world.

(9) What fuels/drives the deep ocean currents?

Deep ocean currents are driven by differences in water density, which are influenced by variations in temperature (thermohaline) and salinity. Cold, salty water is denser and sinks, driving a global conveyor belt of deep ocean circulation.

(10) What evidence and observations indicate that surface evaporation and surface salinity variations correlate in the global ocean system?

Higher evaporation rates increase surface salinity because water evaporates, leaving behind salts. Conversely, areas with heavy rainfall or freshwater influx (like river mouths) show decreased salinity. Oceanographic data collected by buoys and satellites confirms these patterns globally.

(11) What is the “biological pump”? Define it.

The biological pump is a process where marine organisms, such as phytoplankton, absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. When these organisms die, they sink to the ocean floor, effectively transferring carbon from the surface to deep waters, helping to regulate atmospheric CO₂ levels.

(12) What factors limit the vertical and lateral distributions of nektonic species in ocean waters? Name two.

Factors include:

1. Light availability: Many nektonic species depend on light for visibility and hunting, limiting their distribution to upper layers.

2. Oxygen levels: Lower oxygen concentrations at greater depths restrict species that require high oxygen levels for survival.

(13) Why is a marine environment more stable than a land environment?

Marine environments are more stable because water has a high heat capacity, meaning it can absorb and retain heat more effectively than air. This moderates temperature fluctuations, providing a stable environment for marine life compared to the rapid temperature changes on land.

(14) How are El Niño events affecting weather patterns in the Midwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois)?

The midwest is is dry, the northwest is hot, the southwest is wet, and the south is cold.

(15) Why do strong La Niña events cause catastrophic floods in northern Australia?

La Niña events result in cooler-than-average ocean temperatures in the central Pacific, which intensifies the trade winds and brings increased moisture to northern Australia. This leads to heavier-than-normal rainfall and significant flooding.

(16) Why do subtropical gyres flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere?

Subtropical gyres in the northern hemisphere flow clockwise due to the Coriolis effect, which deflects moving water to the right. Wind patterns like the trade winds and westerlies also drive these gyres in a circular pattern.

(17) What is the most important sediment supplier of a delta?

The primary sediment source for a delta is the river that feeds into it, carrying sediments from upstream erosion and weathering.

(18) How does reduced sediment supply affect the delta environment?

If the sediment supply to a delta decreases, the delta may erode, leading to land loss, saltwater intrusion, and the loss of critical habitats like wetlands.

(19) Why are deltas ecologically diverse, rich, and productive?

Deltas provide a mix of freshwater and saltwater environments, creating nutrient-rich conditions that support a wide range of species. The combination of habitats (e.g., marshes, estuaries) fosters high biodiversity and productivity.

(20) Why are delta environments highly susceptible to climate change impacts?

Deltas are so susceptible to climate change because they are low-lying, flat, and built on soft, loose sediments. This makes them particularly vulnerable to changes in sea levels, storms, and alterations in river flow. Their fragile structure means that even small disruptions can lead to flooding, erosion, and land loss. Additionally, deltas are dynamic systems that rely on a delicate balance between sediment deposition and erosion; any shift due to climate change can upset this balance, making them highly sensitive to environmental changes.

SAMPLE EXAM QUESTIONS – fill-in-blank, multiple choice & True/False:

1. Fill-in-the blank: Precipitation, evaporation, convective circulation, wind systems and clouds all occur within this layer of the atmosphere: trophosphere.

2. Fill-in-the blank: Name the three most important wind belts in the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth: Tradewinds, Westerlies, and Polar Easterlies

3. Fill-in-the blank: Name the two most important permanent gases in the atmosphere:

Oxygen and Nitrogen

4. Fill-in-the blank: As Earth rotates, different latitudes travel at different velocities and this change in speed with latitude causes the physical phenomenon, called:

Coriolis Effect

5. True / False (Circle one): The ocean is heated up at high latitudes and cooled in the tropics, whereas salinity is dominantly modified by concentration – dilution related to the evaporation, precipitation and river runoff flux.

6. Fill-in-the blank: Wind driven currents move water Horizontally and are also called surface currents_. Density driven currents move water vertically causing through mixing of water masses in the ocean. These currents are also called thermohaline currents..

7. Fill-in-the blank: The zone between ~100 m and ~1000 m in ocean water in which temperature changes are rapid is called:

Thermocline

8. Fill-in-the blank: Areas of strong offshore winds along the continental coastlines, where water diverges, are characterized by zones of upwelling.

9. Fill-in-the blank: In which wind belt are we located in southwest Ohio? Be specific. Westerlies.

10. Fill-in-the blank: Salinity variations at sea surface are mainly driven by the following four natural processes:

Evaporation

Precipitation

River inflow

Ice formation and melting

11. Fill-in-the blank: Estuaries are semi-enclosed bodies of water where fresh water from the land mixes with sea water. Name two different types of estuaries based on their origin:

-Coastal plain estuary

-Fjord

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12. Fill-in-the blank: In which estuary type does the quantity of fresh water inflow strongly affect the estuary dynamics and water stratification?

Salt-wedge estuary

13. True / False (Circle one): Stressful conditions and abundant nutrients in estuarine environments result in low species diversity, but great abundance of the species present.

14. Fill-in-the blank: These coastal water environments are unique and important natural environments, and contain a wide range of habitats and ecosystems, supporting a diversity of species of fish, shellfish, aquatic plants and animals. Their protected waters provide vital nesting, breeding, and feeding habitats for many species. Name this unique coastal water environment:

Estuaries

15. Fill-in-the blank: Two major problems affecting estuaries adversely are

Climate change and pollution

. 16. True / False (Circle one): Two main types of marine pollution are Hypoxia and oil spills. 17. True / False (Circle one): Almost 45 % of the global surface areas are pollution hotspots

18. Fill-in-the blank: Nonpoint source pollution is difficult to control because

-It is hard to regulate and monitor

-Hard to tell where it came from since it doesn’t come from a single point, but rather diffuse sources.

-It is weather-dependant, with more rain/snow causing the likelihood of runoff from agricultural farms or businesses to increase.

19. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for plant growth. If too much of these substances enters an ocean, it can lead to:

(a) Debris pollution (b) Eutrophication (c) Point-source pollution

(d) Nutrient poisoning (f) None of the above

20. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: If an area where strip mining is done has not been properly reclaimed (soil replaced and graded, vegetation replanted), chemical reactions can lead to acidic runoff, which dissolves heavy metals such as copper, lead and mercury. These metals, in turn, contaminate streams and oceans. This kind of pollution is called:

(a) Non-point source pollution (b) Point source pollution

(c) Non-reclamation hot spot (d) Environmental disaster

21. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone is one of the largest human-caused dead zones in the global coastal ocean system, and is caused by:

(a) Input of nitrates from the Mississippi River;

(b) Contributions of animal manure, sewage treatment plants and industrial emissions; (c) Natural soil decomposition processes;

(d) Biological chain reactions

(e) All of the above.

22. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: he Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) within the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is a high concentration of floating plastic debris material of all sizes and primarily occurs within the territorial waters of (which continent listed below):

(a) Canada (b) Mexico (c) The USA (d) Russian Federation (e) Hawaii

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23. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Marine wetlands are extremely important for diverse ecosystems in coastal water settings, are centres of marine productivity, and provide for marine organisms:

(a) Shelter (b) Nutrients (c) Food (d) Spawning areas for marine species (e) All of the above

24. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Pelagic environment in the oceans is divided into two main biozones: Neritic and Oceanic Provinces. The Oceanic Province is further sub-divided into the following four biozones:

(a) Epipelagic, Mesopelagic, Bathypelagic and Abyssopelagic

(b) Supraneritic, Subneritic, Littoral, and Sublittoral

(c) Stenohaline, Euryhailne, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic

(d) None of the above.

25. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Ocean Zones are divided into three main zones based on the availability of light. These zones include:

(a) Ultra-light, Filter-light, and UV-light

(b) Euphotic, Disphotic, and Aphotic

(c) Retinophotic, Chemophotic, and Heliophotic

(d) None of the above.

26. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Which one of the marine organisms listed below has the widest range of temperature tolerance in seawater?

(a) Tuna fish (b) Seaweed (c) Parrotfish (d) Arctic icefish (e) Thermophilic bacteria

27. Multiple choice question; circle the correct answer: Warmer temperatures increase the rate of biological activity, which more than doubles with an increase of 10°C. Therefore, which one of the marine organisms listed below grow much faster:

(a) Arctic life (b) Tropical life (c) Deltaic life (d) Life in coastal upwelling zones

28. Stenothermal organisms can tolerate only small T°C variations in seawater, and therefore they can survive only at certain temperature intervals. The most common stenothermal organisms that fit these conditions are:

(a) Reptiles, crustaceans, salmon, and penguin (b) Code fish, tilapia, seals, and prawns (c) Green algae baleen whales & whale sharks (d)

29. Scientific evidence shows that during the Ice Age, when Earth's climate was colder, extreme El Niño events were very rare, but that these events are becoming more intense in recent years resulting in more extreme weather patterns. Explain the reasons for this significant change. What is behind it? Give a scientifically viable explanation.

Climate change is driving the warming of ocean surface temperatures, particularly in the central and eastern Pacific. This warming reduces the normal temperature gradient between the eastern and western Pacific, making it easier for El Niño conditions to develop. Additionally, the increased heat in the atmosphere contributes to more intense weather patterns, including stronger El Niño events, which disrupt global climate systems and lead to more extreme rainfall, droughts, and other weather anomalies worldwide.

30. Should societies and communities modify, develop and / or significantly change the natural balance of deltas, estuaries and related marine wetlands so that they can benefit more economically, socially, and culturally in the long term? Develop a coherent, two–paragraph essay for the potential consequences for such human

interferences.

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