Untitled Flashcards Set

Science – Systematic study of the natural world based on observation and experimentation.

Biology – The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

Importance of Biology – Helps us understand life processes, medicine, environmental conservation, and evolution.

Characteristics of Life – Organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, evolution.

Hierarchical Organization of Life – Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organisms → Populations → Communities → Ecosystems → Biosphere.

Scientific Discovery Process – Observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, analysis, conclusion.

Hypothesis vs. Theory – A hypothesis is a testable explanation; a theory is a well-supported, broad explanation of phenomena.

Variables in an Experiment – Independent (manipulated), dependent (measured), controlled (constant).

Four Themes in Biology – Evolution, structure-function relationships, information flow, energy transformation, interconnections.

Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life

Atom Structure – Nucleus (protons, neutrons), electrons in orbitals.

Subatomic Particles – Protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), electrons (negative).

Atomic Number vs. Atomic Mass – Atomic number = protons; Atomic mass = protons + neutrons.

Atoms vs. Isotopes – Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons.

Importance of Isotopes – Used in medicine (radioactive tracers), dating fossils.

Energy Levels & Electrons – Electrons exist in shells; higher shells have more energy.

Octet Rule – Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to complete an octet.

Ions vs. Atoms – Ions have gained/lost electrons, making them charged.

Chemical Identity – Determined by the number of protons.

Oxidation & Reduction – Oxidation = loss of electrons; reduction = gain of electrons.

Bond Formation – Elements combine based on valence electrons.

Types of Bonds – Covalent (strong), ionic (transfer electrons), hydrogen (weak attractions).

Electronegativity – An atom’s ability to attract electrons.

Water’s Role in Biology – Universal solvent, high heat capacity, cohesion/adhesion.

Water Ionization – H₂O → H⁺ + OH⁻.

Acids vs. Bases – Acids donate H⁺, bases accept H⁺.

pH Scale – Measures acidity/alkalinity; biological systems maintain homeostasis.

Buffers – Maintain stable pH in biological systems.

Chapter 3: Macromolecules

Carbon Chemistry – Carbon forms diverse organic molecules.

Four Macromolecules – Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

Elements in Macromolecules – C, H, O, N, P, S.

Functional Groups – Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate.

Monomers & Polymers – Monomers link to form polymers via dehydration synthesis.

Dehydration vs. Hydrolysis – Dehydration builds molecules; hydrolysis breaks them down.

Carbohydrates – Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (starch).

Isomers – Same formula, different structure (glucose vs. fructose).

Cellulose & Chitin – Structural polysaccharides.

DNA vs. RNA – DNA = double helix, RNA = single-stranded.

Amino Acid Structure – Amino group, carboxyl group, R group.

Protein Structure – Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats – Saturated = no double bonds, solid; unsaturated = double bonds, liquid.

Lipid Functions – Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling.

Chapter 4: Cell Structure & Function

Cell Size Limitation – Surface area-to-volume ratio constraints.

Plasma Membrane – Composed of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol.

Cell Theory – All living things are made of cells; cells arise from preexisting cells.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes – Prokaryotes lack nuclei; eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles.

Cell Organelles & Functions – Nucleus (DNA storage), mitochondria (ATP production), ribosomes (protein synthesis).

Rough vs. Smooth ER – Rough ER has ribosomes; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

Lysosomes vs. Peroxisomes – Lysosomes digest; peroxisomes detoxify.

Cytoskeleton Components – Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.

Mitochondria & Chloroplasts – Energy-producing organelles.

Endosymbiotic Theory – Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria.

Animal vs. Plant Cells – Plants have cell walls, chloroplasts, central vacuoles.

Extracellular Matrix – Provides structural support in animal cells.

Chapter 5: Membranes & Transport

Phospholipid Bilayer – Hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.

Membrane Components – Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrates.

Fluid Mosaic Model – Describes dynamic nature of membranes.

Membrane Proteins – Transport, enzymes, receptors, recognition, adhesion, cytoskeleton attachment.

Passive vs. Active Transport – Passive = no energy; active = ATP required.

Diffusion & Osmosis – Movement of molecules and water.

Tonicity – Hypertonic (water leaves), hypotonic (water enters), isotonic (equilibrium).

Endocytosis & Exocytosis – Transport mechanisms for large molecules.

Selective Permeability – Only specific molecules cross membranes freely.