Untitled Flashcards Set

(2nd) Agricultural Revolution

• c. 1700s

• Increasing consolidation of (rural) land ownership

• Enclosure Acts (many) make it harder on poorer farmers

  • Removal of “Commons”

  • Maintenance/fencing requirements

• Degradation of traditional feudal/subsistence agriculture farming

• Increasing commercialization of farming

  • Profit of sales to a growing (global) population

• Scientific influence on farming

  • Incorporation of newer crops (ex. The Potato) via the Columbian Exchange

  • Ex. Crop rotation vs. fields lying fallow

• Industrial influence on farming

  • Ex. Iron, later Steel plows

  • Ex. Jethro Tull’s Seed Drill [date]

• Both increases agricultural productivity, allowing for an increase in (particularly) urban populations

• And “pushes” poorer families from the countryside to the cities (labour force)

(First) Industrial Revolution

• c. 1750-1850

• Not all historians agree that the “Industrial Revolution” is a useful term

  • Slow, long process of mechanization

  • Obscures how this change actually occurs

• Combination of multiple causal factors including:

  • Proximity to waterways; access to rivers and canals (transportation)

  • Supply of coal, iron, and timber

  • Improved agricultural productivity

  • Population growth (demand) and urbanization)

  • Legal protection of private property

  • Access to foreign resources & markets (Imperialism)

  • Accumulation of capital (Imperialism)

• It is the unique combination of these factors that leads to Industrialization

  • First in England, then spreading east and south through Europe, west into N. America, and eventually into Japan

  • British dominance of this phase of the Industrial Revolution is displayed at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, 1851

• Mechanization and larger workshops do continue elsewhere

  • Exs.: iron working in India, textile production in Egypt

  • but their relative share of global production declines

• An important transition in power sources (for work, mechanization) occurs in this period.

• From: water, wind

• To: fossil fuels (coal, later oil)

• The “Age of Steam”

• Newcomen Steam Engine, 1712

  • First coal-fueled engine

  • Very inefficient

• Watt-Boulton Steam Engine, 1765

  • Greater efficiency, power provided

  • More reliable, dependable

  • Can be located almost anywhere

• Allows for centralization of production, mass production (factories)

The Age of British Imperial Dominance

• “Pax Britannica”

  • Period of relative global peace while Britain remains the dominant power

  • Period during which British navy “rules the waves”

  • warfare generally limited to smaller, more local conflicts

• The Imperialism of Free Trade

  • By 1830, Great Britain controlled roughly 45% of world trade

• Britain lead in industrialization:

  • able to transport goods more cheaply than competing nations

  • able to manufacture more goods and more cheaply

  • able to break into foreign markets by using naval power and military force

• A truly globe-spanning empire on which “the sun never sets”

  • Settler colonies

  • Commercial colonies, managed areas

Transportation and Communication Changes

• International Postal Union

• Telegraph

• Transatlantic telegraph cables

• Telephone

• Radio or wireless

• 2nd generation (steel, standardized track gauges) railroads

  • Transcontinental Railroads

• Steamships

• Iron, (later) steel hulls for ships

• Massive canal projects

  • Ex. Suez Canal (1869)

  • Ex. Panama Canal (1914)

• Huge infrastructure projects

  • Ex. Brooklyn Bridge

• A transportation and communication revolution

• Decreasing time, cost of business, increasing volume

  • A self-reinforcing process that encourages further innovation/improvement to grow profits

Urbanization

• Impacts of a growing population (generally, globally) combined with the effects of the Agricultural Revolution

• Growing demand for workers in factories (somewhat) provides an outlet for this growth

• Cities previously had been generally small, and stable in population

  • Often around 20k, very few bigger than 50k

  • Walled, fortified

• Cities (number and size of) explode in this period of industrialization

  • By the 1850s London is closing in on 3 million inhabitants

  • Several cities in the UK have populations in the hundreds of thousands

• This creates many problems

  • Housing

    • Overcrowded, cheaply/hastily constructed tenement housing

    • Lacking almost any amenities (running water, electricity - later)

    • Vulnerable to fire, collapse

  • Health and sanitation

    • Open sewage systems that “worked” in smaller centers

    • Burial of the poor (“paupers grave”)

    • Spread of diseases (exs. Cholera,typhus, tuberculosis) through overcrowded, malnourished populations in these conditions

  • Pollution

    • From the laissez-faire approach to industrial production

    • Health and Quality of Life impacts (aesthetics, general welfare)

  • Crime

    • Volunteer city watches can’t cope with these much larger cities

    • Poor and desperate people are often a breeding ground for crime

    • Eventually, cities begin to est. Government organized police forces

      • Ex. London Police Service (1855)

Labour in the Industrial Revolution

• Growing Middle Class (neither wealthy capitalist nor working class) - merchants, finance, professions, small business owners

  • Still a small minority of the population

• With a growing population, urbanization there is an oversupply of urban labourers

• Government is run by and for the wealthy

  • Ex. Britain’s Corn Laws (1815-48)

    • Brought in as an economic countermeasure to Napoleon’s “Continental System”

    • Outlives its purpose by decades

    • Economic protectionism (agriculture)

    • Tariff inflates price of foreign food in the UK

    • Allows domestic farmers to charge more for their product

    • Benefits larger farmers (the wealthy Aristocracy) most

    • Stays because they (effectively) control the government

  • These governments create laws that benefit them

  • Trade (or labour) unions have no legal protection, and are generally illegal (early on)

• Prevailing “laissez-faire” classical liberal approach to the economy

  • Extreme individualism

  • Government does not “interfere” with business

    • Little to no regulation of business (safety and labour standards)

• Results in large numbers of a new urban working class (“the Proletariat”)

  • Generally face harsh living and working conditions

  • Hours of work vary, but often six days/week, and often 12+ hours/day

  • There are no laws prohibiting child labour so this is common

    • Families are desperate

  • Lifespan is generally quite short, but also depends on industry, location

  • Alcoholism is high among working class men particularly

  • Alienation (the state of feeling estranged or separated/removed from your community or even yourself) results from large, conglomerated, constantly shifting communities of working class people in these cities.

• The above conditions both provoke and invite the spread of other, more radical ideologies (Socialism, Revolutionary Socialism or “Communism,” and Anarchism) in opposition to Classical Liberalism

• These more radical ideologies are seen as threatening by the ruling classes.

• These more radical ideologies also make inroads into the (slowly) growing labour unionization movement.

Second Industrial Revolution

• c. 1860/70-1914

• Shift in from coal to oil as fossil fuel source

  • Replacement for whale oil

  • Originally seen as a nuisance

  • Growth in uses for/use of oil accelerates

• Mass production of steel

  • Bessemer converter, 1855

  • Effects multiple other areas of industrialization

    • Mass transportation, railroads, urbanization, etc.

  • Huge impact on military power

    • Ex. Krupp Steelworks, and advanced military weapons

    • Ex. the Maxim (machine) gun

  • Growth/development of chemical industries

    • Ex. Ammonia, Chlorine, Rubber

• Precision machinery, mass production and interchangeable parts

  • Popularized by American inventor and industrialist Eli Whitney

• Assembly line production

  • Inspired by the disassembly lines in meat packing plants

  • Adopted fully by Henry Ford (1913)

• Virtuous cycle with growing consumerism

  • Increases in efficiency, can prompt higher demand and vice versa

Japan’s growth into an Imperial Power

• Est. of the Tokugawa Shogunate brings to an end years of internal war

• Japan limits foreign/Western influence during the Tokugawa Shogunate [dates]

• Early Portuguese contacts/trading inroads restricted

• Island of Dejima (Nagasaki)

  • Portuguese joined by the Dutch (East India Company) and some English traders

• Missionary activity restricted, Christianity persecuted, Christianization (largely) reversed

• Maintenance of a strictly feudal state in the Tokugawa Shogunate

  • Shogun as political/military and de facto ruler

  • Emperor as spiritual/cultural ruler (but a figurehead)

  • Class by birth

  • Aristocracy (daimyo) leading a warrior class (samurai)

  • Largely rural, agricultural base

  • Subsistence agriculture supports the class structure and state

• Interest in Western culture persists

  • “Dutch Learning” (medicine, military, political philosophy,...)

  • Continued influence of (and sometimes reaction against) Christianity

• Commodore Perry and the Opening up of Japan (1853)

  • Example of what has happened to China (humiliating treaties)

  • Division/conflict in Japan over traditionalism vs. reform

• Reform side prevails in the Meiji Restoration, 1869

• Iwakura mission (1871-3) studies Western powers

  • Basis for a rapid reform/westernization of multiple aspects of Japanese society

• Japan’s growing industrial and military might encourages Imperialism

  • Largely at China’s expense (Concessions, Formosa, Korea, Manchuria)

  • Grows to the point of defeating Russia (Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5)

Industrialization and the Rise of Capitalism

• The importance of the textile industry, early transformation

  • Constant demand (consumer staple)

  • Growing demand

    • Need (growing population)

    • Want (growing middle class)

  • Encourages a shift in production

    • Away from putting out system (cottage industry - decentralized, individualized)

    • To factory system (mechanized, centralized, mass production, increasingly specialized labour roles)

  • Damaging to artisanal production, as labour is divided, mechanized

    • Ex. Luddite movement - protests against mechanization in N. England c. 1811-7

  • Simple, pre-fossil fuel mechanization includes:

    • Flying Shuttle

    • Spinning Mule (1779)

    • Power Loom (1785)

• Lowered costs/higher capacity of production and transportation (and communication)

  • Encouraging increased consumerism (virtuous cycle)

    • Ex. Rise of Department Stores

      • The Bonne Marche, Paris [date]

      • Harrods, London [date]

  • Growing availability/advertisement of tourism/travel

    • Ex. the CPR Hotels in Canada

  • Manufacture/advertisement of different gradations of luxury products to enable/encourage consumption by lower classes of consumers

    • Ex. Josiah Wedgewood and China production and marketing (UK)

• Connection to/Continuation of the Commercial Revolution

• Growth of private, non-aristocratic (land/farming based) fortunes

• Growth of the middle class

  • Esp. people engaged in trade, finance

• Growing wealth, influence of the middle class

  • Through work (ex. The East India Company and British politics)

  • Through political inclusion (ex. British Parliament, the U.S.)

• Development of huge fortunes, particularly in the 2nd Industrial Revolution

  • “Robber Barons” in the U.S.

    • Exs. J.P. Morgan (Finance, Railroads), Andrew Carnegie (Steel), J.D. Rockefeller (Oil)

    • These moguls generally try to establish some degree of monopoly (then called “trusts”) in their areas of business

    • Standard Oil (Rockefeller) prompts the U.S. to adopt the first antitrust (anti-monopoly) legislation.

  • 2nd Industrial Revolution sometimes referred to as “the Gilded Age” (U.S.) or “La Belle Époque” (France, Europe)

    • A period of growing disparity, growing consumerism, and political corruption through the influence of money

    • Extravagant lifestyles for the “nouveau riche”

Imperialism and Industrialization

• Synergistic relationship with (growing) Imperialism

  • Specialization of labour/production of primary materials (raw or natural resources) in colonies continues, grows

    • Ex. Sugar production, especially in the Caribbean

    • Ex. Mass (often coerced) production of rubber (Amazon, Congo)

    • Ex. Diamonds, ivory from Africa

    • Ex. Guano (fertilizer) industry of Peru, Chile

  • Cheap labour in colonies

  • Wealth and resource extraction contributing to industrialization, growing wealth, power

  • Enabling further imperialism

  • Colonies also provide expanding (potential) markets for finished (industrial) products

• Commercial colonies

  • Small numbers of Imperialists present

  • Serve as the actual or de facto government of an area

  • Generally commercial colonies, focused on producing wealth (resource extraction, trade)

  • Ex. India (many foreign powers, but eventually Britain), China (many powers), and most of imperialism that happens in Africa (many powers).

• Settler colonies

  • Rarer than non-settler colonies

  • Large number of migrants immigrate (willingly or not) to the imperialized region

  • Less strictly a commercial focus

    • Ex. Australia begins as a penal (prison) colony for England

  • Exs. Canada, the U.S., South Africa, New Zealand

• Despite the (rapidly) disappearing Mercantilist view on Economics, and the growing prevalence of theories (including Adam Smith’s) supporting free trade policies and trading systems generally preserve and enhance specialization according to region and patterns of wealth disparity based on colonial history.

  • This is a pattern that is still generally criticized by the political-economic left today

Population & Migration

• Demographic transition - historical shift from prevailing high birth & death rates, to low birth/death rates.

• Population growth globally

  • Columbian Exchange

• But especially Europe

  • Agricultural Revolution, Growing prevalence of Scientific thinking, Science’s impact on medicine, health, sanitation, etc.

  • Women moving to cities have children earlier in life

    • Even a few years earlier can dramatically increase fertility rates

• Transcontinental migration

  • New phenomenon - millions moving to different continents

  • Initially, immigrants more from W. Europe (ex. Ireland)

  • As the 1800s progresses, patterns of emigrants shifts further East and South

    • Germany, Poland, Ukraine, Italy

  • Push factors vary, but overpopulation and population are key

    • Religion, minority persecution can also play a role

  • Generally move to and settle in North America, but also South America, Australia

    • For example an est. 12 million people immigrated to the U.S. between 1870-1900

  • Sparsely populated rural areas (disease, conflict), but also cities and growing industrialization in the Americas

British Imperialism in India

• The Indian subcontinent has a long history of robust trade with neighboring regions (Malay Archipelago, Africa, the Middle East, etc.)

• European traders (after Vasco de Gama) proliferate

• England is only one of a number of different trading nations

• Relationships between European traders and their counterparts are generally more equitable in this period

• Importance of the Battle of Plassey (1757)

  • British dominance over other European powers in India

• The Mughal Empire (1526-1857) is in a period of fragmentation and decline beginning in the 1700s

  • Resulting decentralization of power helps the British East India Company to gain a truly dominant/governing position

    • Divide and conquer tactics

    • “Doctrine of Lapse” (annexing territory to British rule without a clear heir)

  • “The Company” (the British East India Company) effectively is the governing power of the Indian subcontinent beginning in the late 1700s

    • Indirect Rule by Britain

• Indian Rebellion, 1857

  • Various names including First War of independence, Sepoy Rebellion, Indian Mutiny,...

  • Multiple causes including:

    • Resentment at increasingly racist, paternalistic attitudes of the British

      • (especially among the aristocracy of India)

    • News of British troop losses in the Crimean War (1853-6)

    • Anger at being ordered to use new English rifles, with ammunition encased in fat (rumored to be pig/cow fat)

  • Indian rebels initially have success

    • Surround and massacre a holdout of British at Karpur (“Bibighar Massacre”)

  • British troops must travel around Africa, take several months to arrive

    • Atrocities inflicted on Indians in reprisals

• Prompts more direct control of India by the British Government

  • Government of India Act (1858)

  • Period of direct rule by Britain

  • Viceroy (sim. to a Governor General)

  • Expanded civil service

  • English as a (more) neutral lingua Franca for the subcontinent

The “New Imperialism”

• Connection to Racial, and National Darwinism

• An extension/application of Darwin’s (The Origin of Species, 1859) thinking on evolution to contemporary humanity

  • “Survival of the fittest” idea: only the fittest prosper and dominate

• Applied as a justification for imperialism, racism

  • (Seen as Scientific at the time, and sometimes called “Scientific Racism”)

• Tautological/circular argumentation - Europeans increasingly view their dominance as proof of their superiority giving them a right to dominate more

  • Many (now viewed as horrific) implications, including

    • The idea of unfit peoples, whose fate - approved of in the ideology - would be to die out

    • The justification for assimilation.

      • Ex. Cecil Rhodes, rags to riches imperialist (Africa): “I contend that we are the finest race in the world and that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race.”

      • Ex. Residential Schools (many places, including Canada)

    • The justification of imperialism as some sort of noble, even self-sacrificing cause. Bringing the “betterment” of European/Western civilization to “backwards” peoples

• “The White Man’s Burden,” by Rudyard Kipling (1899) generally seen as distilling these New Imperialism views

  • Written unironically, and popular at the time

  • Still generates criticism, counter-reaction

    • Ex. The Brown Man’s Burden

    • Ex. The Black Man’s Burden

    • Ex. Vladimir Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)

      • Economic imperialism, exporting oppression & cheap labour, has extended Capitalism’s life

• Other examples of this type of Darwinistic thinking include:

  • Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau: Essay on the Inequality of Human Races (1853-5)

  • Herbert Spencer, an American intellectual that also valued Social Darwinism

• This attitude towards imperialism, at the time, is popular and even seen as progressive/forward thinking.

Missionaries and Cultural Imperialism

• Increasing Protestant missionary activity after 1800

• Often accompanying charitable work

  • Ex. est. schools, other community/building efforts

• Independent of Western governments

  • Increasingly individualized (not Church directed efforts)

  • Seen as noble, self-sacrificing (connection to the New Imperialism)

  • Ex. David Livingstone and his mission to Africa

    • Hero-like status in Victorian society

    • Incommunicado and found by American journalist Henry Stanley (sensation!)

• Often criticized as avenues for/agents of cultural imperialism (Westernization)

• Growth of Christianity into a more global religion

• Cultural backlashes against Christianity (exs. Japan, China) emerge

• Also incorporation of Christian ideas into indigenous religion/spirituality

Qing Dynasty

• c. 1644-1911

• Sometimes also referred to as the Manchu Dynasty

  • A conquering, Northern (Manchuria) people who topple the faltering Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

  • Keep/modify aspects of Ming government/society they find useful

    • Ex. Education and Civil Service

  • Challenge/change cultural traditions of the majority Han people they dislike

    • Source of resentment

• The Great Qing, esp. in the 1700s, is known for a robust, dynamic culture

  • Ex. Artistic production such as porcelain

  • Ex. Qing philosophy and religious thought

• Initially an expansive, successful, imperialistic state

• Nearly doubles territory under Qing control from the late 1600s through the 1700s

• Population growth is considerable

  • Roughly triples through the 1700s into the early 1800s

  • Peace (internal), population rebound, Columbian Exchange foods, plus gains in agricultural productivity.

  • Creates disparity, economic insecurity/hardship amongst the peasantry

  • A potential source of unrest, division

• Following the Qing’s defeat in the first Opium War, a series of serious rebellions seize China

  • The most serious of these is the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64)

    • In part a Han/Southern rebellion against the Manchu

    • Led by the charismatic Hong Xiuquan

    • Radical philosophy (egalitarian)

    • Eventually crushed by the Qing

    • Devastating: likely 20-30 million die because of this rebellion

• Qing attempts to modernize/reform China

  • Ex. The Self Strengthening Movement (1859-95)

  • Ex. The Hundred Days Reforms (1898)

    • Led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichau, advisors to the young Emperor Guangxu

  • Attempts to bring in Western knowledge, industry, science

  • Efforts limited/undone by reactionary forces within China

    • Ex. Empress Dowager Cixi

Imperialism in China

• European traders have long (centuries) valued multiple products from China (silk, porcelain, tea)

• China values little in return, save silver

• The Qing move to limit European traders (similar to the Japanese) through the Cohong system

  • Access only at the port of Guangzhou

  • Access only through licensed traders

• Especially with growing global demand for tea, Britain faces a balance of payments problem with Chinese trade

• Begin smuggling in Opium to trade with China in the late 1700s

  • Proves very lucrative, and expands dramatically in decades

  • Despite being illegal in China

    • Complicity of corrupt Chinese officials and traders

  • Highly addictive, destructive (Opium dens) substance

• Qing Emperor Daoguang (1782-1850) attempts to crack down on the Opium trade

  • Dispatches Lin Zexu, an Imperial official and advisor, to enforce the law (1839)

  • Seizes and destroys est. 20 million tonnes of opium

• British traders convince Britain to declare war - The First Opium War (1839-42)

• The Second Opium War (1856-60) is fought over the same issue

  • China officials attempting to stop the trade of Opium

  • This time joined by other foreign powers (e.g. France)

• China increasingly forced to sign a series of “humiliating” or “unequal treaties” with an increasing number of foreign powers

  • (The first of these is the Treaty of Nanjing (1842) signed with Britain)

  • Allowing control of ports, territory (“Concessions”)

    • Ex. Hong Kong

  • Allowing unrestricted trade (including Opium)

  • Allowing economic development (mines, railroads) to be run exclusively by the foreign power

  • Allowing “extraterritoriality” (legal protection) of foreigners on Chinese soil

  • Allowing, and agreeing to protect, Christian missionaries

  • Britain is joined by France, Germany, Italy, the United States, Russia and Japan in forcing these treaties on China

  • Japan is the last to get involved, and wins its defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-5)

• These treated effectively dismantle China as an imperialist power

  • Exs. Burma (Britain), Indochina (France), Korea (Japan)

• The U.S. proposes an international “Open Door Policy” re. China

  • Allowing the Qing to continue to exist, but with no sovereignty re. Foreign powers

  • Idea: to preserve peace between competing foreign nations amid the “Scramble for China”

• Peasant unrest (poverty, poor harvests) combined with resentment over foreign influence eventually gives rise to the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)

  • Spiritual/folk culture influence (“Righteous Order of Harmonious Fists”)

  • The Empress Dowager Cixi sides with the rebels

  • A multinational foreign army puts down the Rebellion

  • Further concessions are extracted from China

  • Beginning of the end for the Qing dynasty

Imperialism in Africa

• Previous inaccessibility of the interior of Africa (to Europeans)

• Malaria

• Cinchona bark, industrialization (mass production of Quinine)

• Explorations

  • Ex. David Livingstone’s exploration of the Congo River

• Explorations stoke motives for Imperialism

  • Resources, rel. weakness of Africans militarily.

• Berlin West Africa Conference (also “The Berlin Conference,” 1885)

  • Led by German statesman Otto von Bismarck

  • An attempt to reduce tensions between nations competing for control of Africa

  • Spheres of Influence for the major powers in Africa

  • But must also prove “effective occupation” of regions

  • As the remainder of Africa gets claimed, and any independent regions (ex. Morocco) fall, this increases tensions: “The Scramble for Africa”

• Nationalism, national pride also contribute greatly to this stage of imperialism

  • “The Great Game” (as named by a British diplomat)

• Rivalries & tensions: part of the cause of WWI

European atrocities in Africa

• The worst occurs in the Congo

• Belgium is a new country (1831), with a new monarchy

• Monarch Leopold II of Belgium manages to gain territory at the Berlin Conference

  • Knowledge of the lands riches via exploration

  • “Congo Free State,” directly subject to Leopold’s rule

• A Brutal reign of terror follows.

• A mercenary army, the Force Publique, led by Belgians terrorizes the indigenous population

  • Forcing them to produce quotas of rubber, some other products (ivory mainly).

    • Rubber is very valuable due to the growing bicycle craze

  • Maiming, raping, and executions used to coerce the population to work

  • Est. 10 million killed (though estimates vary)

  • “Rubber Terror,” “Red Rubber”

• Reports of the scale of atrocities emerge in increasing numbers at the turn of the Century

  • Reports of Christian missionaries

  • Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad (1899)

• Control of Congo given to the Belgium directly in 1909 (The Belgian Congo)

The Genocide of the Herero peoples (1904-7)

• Colony of German SW Africa

• German military response to indigenous rebellions.

• Deliberate attempt to kill off a group of people

• Often regarded as the first Genocide of the 20th Century

• Similar conditions and results in the Maji Maji Rebellion in German E. Africa (1905-07)

The Boers and the Boer Wars

• The English increasingly assert their authority after they take the colony (1795)

  • Displacement of indigenous peoples in expansion

    • Ex. the Xhosa Wars (19th C.)

• The Afrikaners or Boers (farmers, descendants of Dutch settlers) move North (“Voortrekkers”)

  • Conflict with indigenous Matebele, Zulu peoples

  • Est. of independent Orange Free State, Transvaal

• Eventually conflict between Britain and the Boers

  • Largely prompted by discoveries of gold, diamonds on Boer land

  • Cecil Rhodes plays a large role in provoking the 2nd (more serious) Boer War

• Afrikaner use of guerilla warfare, ambushes

• British use of Concentration Camps

  • (World’s first)

  • Conditions of which prompt a public outcry when revealed

Historical Globalization Continues

• Bonds between nations multiply and thicken during the period

• Increased interactions among peoples of the world

• Europeans are agents of globalization

• New territories integrated into the global economic system through imperialism, trade

• European languages become globalized world languages (English, French, Spanish)

• New technologies encourage expansion of global trade

  • Ex. refrigerator ships

• Emergence of global communications networks (postal, telegraph, radio, telephone)

• Expansion of transportation networks

  • increased global mobility

  • expansion of shipping industry

  • construction of ocean connecting canals

  • transcontinental railways

• Development of global standards

  • standardized time

  • International Date Line

  • Universal Postal Union

  • adoption of the metric system

• Shrinking of the globe

  • death of distance

  • planetary contraction(s)

  • instantaneous communications

• Emergence of a global consumer culture

  • swamping of local economies with cheap goods from European factories

  • global consumer products

  • global advertising campaigns

• Cultural impacts of historical globalization

  • cultural homogenization

  • cultural hybridization

  • mixture of global with local cultures (“glocalization”)

  • assimilation & marginalization of cultures

  • cultural decline/extinction

• Outbreak of World War I results in de-globalization

  • cutting of economic ties between warring nations

  • global trade disrupted by submarine warfare, naval blockades, sea mines

  • Germany was cut off from its overseas colonies

  • Economic protectionism rises after World War I (reluctance to trade with former enemies)