Psychology EST Revision

Term

Definition

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and undersanding.

Sensation

A physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body.

Perception

The process of how our brains interpret sensory information from the world around us.

The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.

States of consciousness

A person’s level of awareness of their surroundings and internal experience.

• Normal waking: Alertness, controlled thought, problem-solving.

• Altered states:

  • Natural: Sleep (REM/NREM), daydreaming, meditation.

  • Induced: Hypnosis, drug-induced, sensory deprivation.

• Unconsciousness: Deep sleep, coma, anesthesia.

Procedural memory

A type of long-term memory that stores information about how to perform actions and skills.

Selective attention

The capacity for or process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively when several occur simutaneously.

Divided attention

The ability to focus on multiple tasks or sources of information simultaneously.

Daydreaming

A common mental state where the mind wanders from current tasks or exernal stimuli, focusing instead on internal thoughts, fantasies or imagined scenarios.

Meditation

A practice that involves focusing or clearing your mind using a combination of mental and physical technique.

Hypnosis

A state of focused attention and relaxation, often induced by a therapist, where individuals are more open to suggestions and changes in their thoughst, feelings, and behaviours.

Sleep

Sleep is a naturally recurring state of rest characterised by reduced consciousness, perceptual disengagement, and relative immobility.

Physiological indicators of consciousness

They are the most reliable and least subjective means of indiating different states of consciousnes during sleep and wakefulness. Typically, the data is consistent and stable. Physiologial indicators can include:

• Brainwaves

• Heart rate

• Galvanic Skin Respoonse

Brainwaves

Measured using elecroencephalogram (EEG). There are five types of waves:

• Gamma waves - highest frequency (40-100 Hz/s). Hyper alert, learning, memory, and perception.

• Beta waves - high frequency (12-40 Hz/s). Awake and alert, attentive, logical thinking, problem-solving.

• Alpha waves - Reasonably high frequency (8-12 Hz/s). Relaxed wakefulness, calmness, comas

• Theta waves - medium frequency (4-8 Hz/s). Early stages of sleep, daydreaming, and deep meditation.

• Delta waves - low frequency (1-4 Hz/s). Deep sleep, too much associates with brain injuries, too little poor sleep.

Heart rate

Heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute.

State of consciousness and average heart rate (bpm):

• Awake and alert: 60-100

• Drowiness/relaxation: 55-85

• Non-REM sleep: 50-90

• REM sleep: variable, 50-100

• Anaesthesia: variable, typically lowered

• Unconsciousness/coma: variable, may vary widely

• Arousal/recovery: returning to awake levels

Galvanic skin response

An electrical measure of the amount of sweat on the skin. Galvanic skin response value ranges from 0 to around 100 μS or higher. Higher values typically indicate increased sweat gland activity and physiological arousal. State of consciousness and gsr (μS):

• Resting/relaxed state: 2-10

• Normal awake state: 5-15

• Mild excitemen/interest: 10-20

• Moderate stress/anxiety: 15-30

• High stress/anxiety: 25-50

• Fear/threat response: 40-100

Friendship formation/determinants of liking (attraction)

The factors or variables that influence an individual’s preference or fondness for something or someone.

There are two perspectives that are considered and often combined with biological theories to full understand the formation of liking:

• Social origins of attraction

• Cognitive origins of attraction

Includes:

• Proximity: Familiarity, interaction, mere exposure

• Similarity: Shared values, attitudes, interests

• Reciprocity: Mutual liking, trust, appreciation

Proximity

The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends. Sometimes this is referred to as the proquinity effect.

This belongs to the social origins perspectives.

Similarity

A match between our interests, attitudes, values, background, or personality and those of another person.

Reciprocity

Social interacion that involves giving and taking or returning in kind — matched or mutually equivalent exchange or paying back of what one has received.

Types of relationships: Prosocial

Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person.

Reasons for this behaviour:

• Evolution theory (kin selection) - people can increase chances that their genes will be passed along if they engage in helping behaviours towards their genetic relatives.

• Altruism - an apparently unselfish behaviour that provides benefit to others at some cost to the individual. Altruism may be a result of empathy.

• Social exchange theory - the idea that people’s feelings abou relationship depend on their perceptions of its rewards and costs. This behaviour is not necessarily rooted in our genes. Instead, people help other others in order to maximise social rewards and minimise social costs.

Types of relationships: Anti-social

Any act performed with the goal of harming another person.

Reasons for this behaviour:

• Biological (nature) - antisocial behaviours, such as aggression, are seen as genetic, where humans instinctively behave to protect themselves and other members of their species, and to compete for scarce resources.

• Environmental (nuture) - This is the view that antisocial behaviour is not innate, but is learnt during the socialisation process. I suggests that antisocial behaviour is learnt.

• Nature + nurture interacting - this approach suggests that, although we might be born wih an innate tendency to some forms of antisocial behaviour, exactly how we act in antisocial ways is the product of learning from the environment.

Ethics in psychological research

Involves the application of moral priniples and guidelines to ensure the well-being, rights, and dignity of researh participants.

They are essential in:

• Maintaining the integrity of research

• Protecting participants

• Upholding the credibility of the field.

Participant rights:

• Right to confidentiality - keeping participants’ information confidential to protect their privacy.

• Voluntary participation - individuals should willingly choose to participate without coercion.

• Withdrawal rights - participants have the right to withdraw from a study at any time without facing negative consequences.

Informed consent procedures

Before people agree to participate in research, they should be informed about:

• The study’s purpose and procedures;

• The study’s potential benefits/risks

• The right to decline participation and withdraw at any time without penalty

• Whether responses will be confidential and, if not, how privacy will be safeguarded.

Objective quantitative measures in research

Assessment tools or metrics that provide numerical data about observable and measurable aspects of psychological phenomena.

Strengths:

• Precsion - precise numerical data.

• Replicability - results can be repeated by others.

• Comparability - allows for easy ocmparison across individuals/groups.

• Statistical analysis - data can undergo various statistical tests.

Weaknesses:

• Limited view - may oversimplify complex psychological aspects.

• Lack of context - might ignore contextual factors.

• Ethical concerns - some measures may pose ethical dillemas or risks to participants.

Physiological measures

• Brainwaves - measured using electroencephalogram (EEG). Gamma>Beta>Alpha>Theta>Delta.

• Heart rate - the number of times you heart beats in one minute.

• Galvanic skin response - electrical measure of amount of sweat on the skin. 0-100μS+.

EEG

Electrical activity

High temporal, non-invasive, low cost

Low spatial, surface-level data

Epilepsy, sleep disorders

CT Scan

X-ray imaging

Fast, bleeding/tumors, accessible

Radiation, lower soft-tissue resolution

Brain injuries, strokes

fMRI

Blood flow changes

High spatial, brain mapping

Expensive, lower temporal

Cognition, neuro disorders

Stage 1 (NREM 1)

Light sleep, transition phase

Theta waves, low amplitude

Slow breathing, relaxed muscles

Stage 2 (NREM 2)

Deeper sleep, sleep spindles

Theta waves, K-complexes

Lower body temp, heart rate slows

Stage 3 (NREM 3)

Deep sleep, restorative phase

Delta waves, high amplitude

Tissue repair, growth hormone release

REM Sleep

Dreaming, brain activity spikes

Beta waves, similar to wakefulness

Rapid eye movement, irregular breathing

Insomnia

Difficulty sleeping

Stress, anxiety, poor habits

Fatigue, mood issues

Sleep Apnea

Breathing stops repeatedly

Obstruction, brain signal issues

Snoring, oxygen drops

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks

Neurological, genetic factors

Daytime sleepiness, muscle weakness

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS)

Urge to move legs, discomfort

Genetics, dopamine issues

Sleep disruption, discomfort

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors in sleep

Brain activity irregularities

Term

Definition

Account

Account for: state reasons for, report on.
Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions

Advise

Recommend or inform

Analyse

Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply

Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Argue

Make a case, based on appropriate evidence, for and/or against some given point of view

Assess

Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate

Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Choose
(multiple-choice)

Decide or select the most suitable from a number of different options

Clarify

Make clear or plain

Classify

Arrange or include in classes/categories

Comment on

Make reference to and expand upon

Compare

Show how things are similar and different

Complete

Finish an outlined task

Consider

Reflect on and make a judgement/evaluation

Construct

Make; build; put together items or arguments

Contrast

Show how things are different or opposite

Correlate

Demonstrate a mutual or complementary relationship

Create

Make, invent something

Critically
analyse/evaluate

Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to analyse/evaluate

Debate

Develop a logical (sometimes persuasive) argument, giving differing views in response to a topic

Deduce

Draw conclusions

Define

State meaning and identify essential qualities

Demonstrate

Show by example

Derive

Deduce or obtain by reasoning

Describe

Provide characteristics and features

Determine

Decide, find out

Develop

Generate, elaborate or expand to a more advanced state; add detail to

Discuss

Identify issues and provide points for and/or against

Distinguish

Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; note differences between

Draw
(diagrams etc.)

An instruction, as in draw a circle; sketch in lines or words; derive, as in draw a conclusion

Evaluate

To ascertain the value or amount of; appraise carefully

Examine

Inquire into

Explain

Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how

Explore

Investigate, search for or evaluate

Extract

Choose relevant and/or appropriate details

Extrapolate

Infer from what is known

Identify

Recognise and name

Illustrate

Similar to ‘explain’ (see above), but requires the quoting of specific examples or statistics, or possibly the drawing of maps, graphs, sketches etc.

Interpret

Draw meaning from

Investigate

Plan, search or inquire into; examine in order to obtain the true facts

Judge

Form an opinion, estimate or conclusion; make a determination

Justify

Support an argument or conclusion; give reasons for your statements or comments

Label (and annotate)

Identify by placing a name or word used to describe the object or thing

List

Provide a series of related words, names, numbers or items that are arranged in order, one after the other

Measure

Obtain a metrical unit (e.g. size, dimension, quantity, degree, proportion)

Modify

Alter; change the form or quality

Name

Provide a word or term used to identify an object, person, thing, place etc. (something that is known and distinguished from other people or things)

Outline

Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of

Predict

Suggest what may happen based on available information

Prepare
(e.g. in Accounting)

Take the necessary action to put something into a state where it is fit for use or action, or for a particular event or purpose

Present (an argument)

Offer or convey something such as an argument or statement to somebody formally; a discussion that offers different points of view on an issue or topic; debate

Propose

Put forward (for example, a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action

Prove

Use a series of steps or a scientific method to determine a required result

Recall

Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences

Recommend

Provide reasons in favour

Recount

Tell a series of events; narrate in order

Respond to …

Provide an answer; reply

Select

Choose somebody or something from among several

Show

Give information; illustrate

Sketch

Produce a picture or diagram quickly, roughly; give a brief outline in words

Solve

Determine a solution to a mathematical problem; find an answer to, or explanation of, a problem

State

Express the particulars of an idea or topic

Suggest

Propose a possible action, solution or hypothesis

Summarise

Express, concisely, the relevant details

Synthesise

Put together various elements to make a whole; gather all ideas and combine them into a complex whole; combine all parts