Humanism (p. 363)	The belief that studying classical (Greco-Roman) lit, oration, etc. is muy good A program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature Lead to a lot better education opportunities
Christian Humanism (p. 370)	Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their own religious traditions
Machiavellian Thought	Book: The Prince Ruler’s purpose is to preserve order and security Rulers are better feared than loved, but not hated
Secularism	Renaissance idea Live and focus for the here and not in the afterlife e
Lutheranism	Founded by Martin Luther Believe salvation achieved through faith, the bible is the sole truth, and believers should interpret the bible for themselves
Calvinism	Branch of Protestantism that believed in predestination– your fate/salvation is predetermined before your birth and it doesn’t matter what you do (because if you’ve been predetermined you’re going to be naturally good) Founded by John Calvin
Presbyterianism	Founded by John Knox Version of Calvinism in Scotland
Anglicanism	English branch of Protestantism Created by Henry VIII because the Catholic Church wouldn’t let him divorce so he created his own church (jeez bro, overkill much?)
Politiques	Political stability (state) over religious stability Movers and shakers, lower aristocracy, upper class, have sway, prioritize stability of state over united faith, moderates
Skepticism	Montaigne Skepticism toward religion Portrays churches as enemies of the scientific process Enlightenment ideal
Colonialism	Establishment of colonies in foreign regions Synonym of Imperialism (used interchangeably)
Absolutism (E & W)	East: Enlightened Despots, Absolute monarchs trained from birth to rule since ppl can’t rule themselves, promote Enlightenment ideals West: Divine right, central government, absolute monarch, royal courts solidify king’s control
Constitutionalism (p. 489)	A form of gov in which power is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the government, on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects or citizens on the other hand Does not necessarily have to be republic or democracy, just has to involve a balance of power Key ex. for most of history: England (starting w/ William of Orange)
Enlightenment Philosophies/Ideas	Edu/knowledge is important, individualism, secularism, childhood necessary, separation of power, civil rights, progress beneficial
Mercantilism (p. 474)	A system of econ regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation’s international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver Followers: Colbert
Traditional Conservatism	Oppose change Want to maintain tradition and peace Monarchs, old borders, religious
Social Contract Theory	Created by Jean-Jacquies Rousseau Gov need consent of people to rule and be compatible with popular sovereignty
Liberalism (Economic/Political)	Political: individual rights, tolerance, freedom, democracy (ppl elect rep.), equality, Economic: free trade and competition based on Adam Smith: “Invisible hand of free competition benefit all”
Universal/Limited suffrage	Universal suffrage: everyone can vote Limited: some people can vote
Utilitarianism	“The greatest good for the greatest number” By Jeremey Bentham
Romanticism	Art movement, post Industrial Rev Nostalgia, hoped for a return to “simpler times” (think cottagecore), typically depicted nature, countryside, brighter colors
Utopian Socialism	Government takes control over wealth + means of production and redistributes it all equally Ex. Charles Foie, Blanc, say that there’s no need for government after capitalism is crushed
Nationalism	Nationalism: pride & loyalty to an individual nation; not to king or emperor
Marxism	Next step from socialism, believed there is an eternal struggle between the Bourgeoisie vs. the Proletariat, believed that someday there would be a proletariat revolution to take down capitalism and the bourgeoisie forever
Imperialism	Taking over foreign nations/groups Synonym for colonialism
Social Darwinism	Survival of the fittest applied to the real world Ex: unending economic struggle, imperialism, & nation vs. nation
Realism	Art movement, post Industrial Rev Emphasized current situation rather than romanticizing it (directly following Romanticism), depicted poor people (focus on people), suffering, industrial landscapes, and dull colors Ex. Courbet
Communism	Derived from Marxism Equality, privatization, central government, equal wages (no matter level of effort), no private ownership nor social classes
Existentialism	Literary + Philosophical movement God does not interfere with the human world & does not have a purpose for creating humans Humans are responsible for finding their own purpose & enforcing justice, fairness, order, etc.
Impressionism	Art movement, primarily French Focused on capturing the impression of things rather than all the fine details French version of expressionism Ex. Monet, Manet
Feminism	Movements aimed at establishing and defending equal rights for women
Fascism	Racist subsection of totalitarianism Extreme nationalism, violent leader, & extreme militarism Anti-communist, anti-organized religion
Nazism	Fascism, but with anti-Jewish and anti-western sentiment
Totalitarianism	Dictatorship that takes total control over the people’s lives by taking over all aspects of society

Joan of Arc	French female soldier during 100 Years War, said she had angels and God speaking to her and telling her to fight Turned the tide in favor of France Burned as a heretic
Marsiglio of Padua	Italian lawyer and university official The Defender of the Peace (Book) State great unifying power of society with church subordinate Church power should reside in council of laymen and priest superior to the pope (led to idea of conciliarists) Excommunicated
Petrarch	Explored ruins of Ancient Roman Empire in Italy Believe ancient writers and artist of Rome reached perfection Developed idea of Humanism
Isabella & Ferdinand (Spain)	Spain loose confederation of separate kingdoms Marriage constituted a union of two royal houses Lower aristocratic power by appointing lesser land-owners Made deal with pope Alexander VI to appoint bishops in Spain, establish national church, and make $ With $, fund military to complete reconquista (take back Muslim territory in south) Unify Iberian Peninsula politically when grandson Philip II join Portugal to Spanish crown
Christopher Columbus	Sponsored by Ferdinand and Isbella Portuguese explorer “Sailed the ocean blue in 1492,” discovered the Americas
Cortez	Conquistador Conquered the Mexica Empire (Aztec Empire in Mexico and Central America) Staged civil war with Tlaxcalas and other subjects (angry at tributes to Mexica) Overthrew Mexica leader Montezuma in Tenochtitlana Conquer all over Mexico
Pizarro	Conquistador Conquer Inca Empire (Peruvian empire with capital city Cuzco) Inca Empire leader, Atahualpa, plan to ambush spanish and invite them to Cajamarca Spanish ambush him instead, Atahualpa is executed, Cuzco falls, and land is plundered
Machiavelli	Humanist & Political theorist during the Renaissance, still relevant today Wrote The Prince about Lorenzo de Medici which argued: The function of a ruler or gov is to preserve order and security– weak leadership leads to disorder To preserve the state, a ruler should use whatever means– brutality, lying, manipulation “It is much safer for the prince to be feared than loved” His primary example of a good leader: Cesare Borgia
Erasmus	Dutch Christian humanist Wrote The Edu of a Christian Prince and The Praise of Folly Translated the New Testament to Latin Two fundamental themes throughout his work: edu of the Bible and the classics are the means to reform & renewal should be based on “the philosophy of Christ” His work led to Protestant Reformation but he was never a follower of Luther
Thomas More	English humanist, began as a lawyer Author of Utopia– Greek word for “nowhere” Describes an island where all children receive good edu in Greco-Roman classics, poverty and hunger are solved by the government
John Wycliffe	English scholar and theologian Denied papal authority Scripture alone should be the standard of Christian belief and practice Lollards = followers of Wycliffe First to translate Bible into English
Jan Hus (Protestant)	Denied papal authority Followers oppose church wealth and power Translated Bible into local Czech language Defeated the pope and emperor armies -> forced to recognize Hussite Church in Bohemia
Leonardo da Vinci	Considered true Renaissance man with many talents Sculpture, painter, inventor Works: The Last Supper, Mona Lisa, David, Ornithopter (glider)
Michelangelo	One of the most famous painters and sculptors during the Renaissance Good example of a Renaissance man Worked for the Pope to paint frescos on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508-1512
Jan van Eyck	Netherlands, painter during Renaissance
Laura Cereta	hj
Pope Leo X	Medici Pope, very corrupt, ate on gold plates Issued papal bull excommunicating Luther
Martin Luther	Author of 95 Theses Founder of Protestantism, started Reformation against the Catholic Church Believed indulgences were not a true way to gain salvation, believed in faith alone
Calvin	Founder of Calvinism
Knox	**Follower of Calvin, esta. Calvinist branch Presbyterian church in Scotland***
Henry VIII (England)	Founder of the Anglican Church because the Catholic Church wouldn’t let him divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon Six wives in an attempt to get sons, got one (Edward) but we don’t remember him because he became King and died in like days Father of Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) and Elizabeth I
Anne Boleyn	Henry VIII’s second wife Mother of Elizabeth I Beheaded after she didn’t give him sons
Francis I (France)	Fr. need $ after Habsburg-Valois wars Made deal with Pope Leo X (Concordat of Bologna) Concordat of Bologna: pope receives first year’s income of newly named bishops and abbots in Fr. and Fr. ruler’s select Fr. abbots and bishops in return Concordat of Bologna ensure rich supplement of money and offices
Henry II (France)	Accidentally shot in the face during tournament and died 3 sons had poor leadership and dominated by mother Catherine de’ Medici Fr Nobles took advantage of weak monarchy and adopt Calvinism to have excuse to oppose monarchy and increase their power -> War of the Three Henry’s
Elizabeth I (England)	Middle ground between Protestants and Catholics Brought religious stability to England after her sister, the Catholic Queen Mary, killed a bunch of Protestants Did not marry to preserve stability and her own power Very stable rule, very long rule, very prosperous– you get the idea Believed in divine right End of Tudor dynasty Daughter of Henry VIII
Mary of Scots	Cousin to Elizabeth I Sp King attempted to install her as a Catholic Queen to replace Elizabeth I
Shakespeare	Great playwright during the Renaissance, during Elizabeth I’s time
Henry IV/ of Navarre (France)	Winner of the War of the Three Henrys, Bourbon, Huguenot → converts to Catholic Catherine de Medici’s daughter, Princess Margaret, married to Henry of Navarre (Huguenot) → St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, killed all of Huguenot guests at the wedding (inciting incident) Hen of Navarre (Bourbon) wins, becomes Catholic upon ascending the throne for stability, “Paris is worth a mass.” Passes the Edict of Nantes (1598) - allows religious freedom, allows Huguenots to practice freely in certain regions of Fr
Henry Guise	In War of Three Henrys
Gaspard Coligny	16 February 1519 - 24 August 1572 French Nobleman, Admiral of France, Huguenot leader during French Wars of Religion
Gustavus Adolphus	Swedish King, fought for Protestants, died after being hit by a cannon
Charles V (HRE)	Habsburg Dynasty Defender of Catholic faith Held Diet of Worms (trial for Martin Luther) Signed Edict of Worms & Peace of Augsburg
Philip II (Spain)	“Defender of the Catholic Faith” → tried to marry Mary Tudor, sent the “invincible” Spanish Armada to restore Catholicism in England; defeated During his reign: Spain’s bullion lost value due to Spain’s increasing pop → spread inflation
Margaret, Regent of the Netherlands	- Margaret of Austria, also known as Margaret of Savoy, was a Habsburg princess who served as regent of the Netherlands during the early 16th century. - She was the daughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and married to Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, solidifying political alliances within Europe.
The Duke of Alva	Numerous battle victories in Western Europe and Northern Africa Catholic Sparked Dutch Revolts against Spanish Rule Executed/banished over thousand men
William of Orange (Sp. Netherlands)	Married to Mary of Orange (James II’s daughter) William and Mary of Orange take throne → start of Hanover dynasty (known as the Glorious Revolution, very little blood was shed) Had to sign Eng Bill of Rights in 1689 Monarchy still reigned but Parliament has most of the power → esta. Constitutional monarchy (limited power of the monarchy)
Catherine de Medici (France)	Female Medici → made the Medicis royal by marrying into royalty (made their economic power into political power) Mother of Hen III, instigator of the war of Three Henrys Daughter: Princess Margaret, married to Hen of Navarre
James I (England)	Stuart, Absolutist Scottish cousin of Elizabeth I, becomes King of England after her death
Charles I (England)	Stuart, Absolutist Charles I disliked Parliament, didn’t call until forced to do so in the Petition of Right (lost some power), forced to sign it in order to levy taxes (bc broke) Charles tries to disband Parliament in 1642 → Eng Civil War (Royalists, Cavaliers vs. Roundheads)
James II (England)	Stuart, Absolutist James II is very unpopular bc of Catholic faith Eng nobles fear losing Anglican faith → travel to the Netherlands to James II’s daughter: Mary and George of Orange to persuade them to come to Eng + take the crown Eng nobles go to James II, tell him he has two options: fight and lose, or abdicate (Glorious Revolution) James II flees to Fr

Serfdom	Tenant farmer bound to hereditary plot of land to their landlord Require to give large portion of crop harvest to landlord for using their property Close to slavery Medieval Europe (middle ages 500-1500)
Oligarchies	A small group of people have control over organization institution, or country
Communes	Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guild that sought political and economic independence from local nobles (North Italy) Italian Renaissance
Black Death	Plague that first struck Europe in 1347 and killed ⅓ of the population Mysteriously disappeared 1353
Fur Collar Crimes	After Hundred Years’ War, Nobles turn to crime to raise money during inflation 15th and 16th Century Inspire Robin Hood
Vernacular (lang and lit)	Writing or speaking in local language that people actual spoke (not Latin) Dante Divine Comedy, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales
Popolo	Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power
Defensor Pacis	The Defender of the Peace (Novel) by Marsiglio of Padua Argue against society govern by superior church Instead propose state greater unifying power in society with church subordinate General council superior to pope should lead Church Inspire conciliarist
Utopia (and Utopia)	Book Utopia by Thomas More (Perfect society) Utopia: edu children Greco-Roman classics, adults manual labor, business, or intellectual activities, no poverty, no hunger, beneficial gov, religious tolerance, order/reason prevail
Reconquista	Military Campaign to liberate southern Portuguese and Spanish territories (11th/13th centuries) vs Muslims Complete 1492 by Isabella and Ferdinand
Conversos	AKA New Christians Jews and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who accepted Christianity (include families who converted centuries earlier)
Inquisition	Universal Inquisition AKA Holy Office Official Roman Catholic agency mean to combat international doctrinal heresy Publish Index of Prohibited Books Established by Pope Paul III (1542)
Bohemia	Kingdom in Germany Location of Hussite Church
Hussites	Jan Hus followers
Wycliffes	"Wycliffes" likely refers to followers or adherents of John Wycliffe, an English scholastic philosopher, theologian, biblical translator, reformer, and seminary professor at the University of Oxford. Here are some key points about Wycliffe and his followers: - John Wycliffe (c. 1330s–1384) was a prominent figure in the late Middle Ages who challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and advocated for reforms within Christianity. - He is particularly known for his translation of the Bible into Middle English, making the scriptures more accessible to laypeople. - Wycliffe's teachings emphasized the authority of the Bible over that of the Church hierarchy, criticizing practices such as indulgences, clerical wealth, and papal authority. - His followers, known as Lollards, continued to spread his ideas even after his death, advocating for further reforms and challenging the religious and political establishment of the time. - The Lollard movement faced persecution from both ecclesiastical and secular authorities, but its influence persisted, contributing to the later Protestant Reformation in England.
Lollards	Followers of Wycliffe
Ottomans	- Ottoman Empire: A powerful and long-lasting Islamic state that emerged in Anatolia in the late 13th century. - Expansion: Expanded rapidly, conquering territories in the Balkans, Middle East, and North Africa, reaching its peak in the 16th and 17th centuries. - Administration: Governed through a centralized bureaucracy, with the Sultan as the absolute ruler and Islam as the state religion. - Cultural achievements: Known for its architectural marvels, including the Hagia Sophia and the Topkapi Palace, as well as contributions to art, literature, and science. - Decline: Faced internal strife, economic decline, and pressure from European powers, leading to its gradual decline in the 18th and 19th centuries.
95 Theses	Martin Luther posted 95 Theses on a local church in Wittenberg, beginning of Ref Detailed his opinions on the corruption of the Catholic Church, he called for a denouncement of indulgences
Jesuits	Ignatius of Loyola: Spainard (Sp. led exploration, spread Cath), founder of Jesuits, org. milit branch of the Cath. Church, later shifted attention to edu, created during Counter Ref to combat spread of Prot. 3 methods: Esta. edu (uni and colleges across Euro), convert non-Christians (exploration and colonization), fight Protestants directly
Ursulines	The Ursulines were a Catholic religious order founded in 1535 by St. Angela Merici. Here's a brief summary: - Founding: The Ursulines were established in Brescia, Italy, by St. Angela Merici, who envisioned a community of women dedicated to the Christian education of girls. - Mission: The primary mission of the Ursuline order was the education of young girls, particularly in areas where formal schooling for girls was lacking. - Educational Work: Ursuline sisters opened schools across Europe, North America, and other parts of the world, focusing on providing education in reading, writing, mathematics, and religious instruction. - Expansion: The order expanded rapidly, with Ursuline communities established in various countries, including France, Spain, England, and later in North America. - North America: The Ursulines played a significant role in the early education of girls in the New World, with Ursuline convents established in Quebec, New Orleans, and other North American cities. - Contemporary: Today, Ursuline sisters continue their educational and charitable work around the world, adapting to the changing needs of society while remaining true to their founding principles.
Habsburgs	Locations: Holy Roman Empire, Iberian Peninsula, Austria, Hungary, Bohemia Very powerful before 1648 Three main things you need to know: very inbred (famous for the Habsburg chin), very old (spans multiple centuries), very extended (in a lot of different places) Many people didn’t like the Habsburgs because they felt they had too much power (which is why France sided with the Protestants during the 30 Years’ War) Notable Habsburgs: Charles V, Philip II of Spain and Portugal, Ferdinand II, HRE, Maria Theresa
Court of the Star Chamber	The Court of Star Chamber was an English court that operated from the late 15th to the mid-17th centuries. Here's a concise overview: - Establishment: Established in the late 15th century by King Henry VII of England, the Court of Star Chamber was originally intended to supplement the common-law courts and ensure royal authority. - Jurisdiction: The court had jurisdiction over a wide range of cases, including those involving treason, perjury, political offenses, and disputes involving powerful individuals or interests. - Procedure: Unlike common-law courts, the Star Chamber operated without a jury and allowed for secret proceedings. It relied heavily on the use of interrogations, torture, and punishment to extract confessions and maintain order. - Controversy: Over time, the court became associated with arbitrary and oppressive practices, leading to criticism and opposition from Parliament and the public. - Abolition: The Court of Star Chamber was abolished in 1641 by the Long Parliament as part of a broader movement to curb royal prerogative and abuses of power. Its abolition was seen as a victory for civil liberties and the rule of law in England.
Chamber
Tudors	Henry VII(r. 1485-1509) → Henry VIII(r. 1509-47) → Edward VI(r. 1547-53) → Mary I(r. 1553-8) → Elizabeth I(r. 1558-1603) Established the foundations of Anglicanism(under Henry VIII) cause the pope didn’t approve of Henry VII’s divorce Notably shifted power from the Roman Catholic Church to the monarchs Fought against the Spanish a lot
The United Provinces	The United Provinces, also known as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, was a confederation of provinces in the Low Countries that existed from the late 16th to the late 18th century. Here's a brief summary: - Formation: The United Provinces emerged during the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) against Spanish rule. In 1581, the northern provinces of the Low Countries declared their independence from Spain, forming the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and subsequently becoming the United Provinces. - Government: The United Provinces was a federal republic, with each of the seven provinces (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overijssel, Groningen, and Friesland) maintaining its own government and contributing to a central government known as the States General. - Golden Age: The 17th century is often referred to as the Dutch Golden Age, during which the United Provinces experienced significant economic, cultural, and military growth. They became a major maritime and trading power, with Amsterdam emerging as a leading commercial center. - Religious Tolerance: The United Provinces was known for its relatively high degree of religious tolerance compared to other European states of the time. This attracted religious minorities such as Jews, Huguenots, and others who faced persecution elsewhere. - Decline: The decline of the United Provinces began in the late 17th century due to internal political strife, economic challenges, and conflicts with neighboring powers, particularly England and France. The republic was gradually eclipsed by its rivals, and it officially ceased to exist in 1795 with the French invasion and establishment of the Batavian Republic.
Baroque	Art movement following the Renaissance Concurrent w/ the Counter Reformation Characterized by drama, dramatic contrasts of light and dark, emotional depictions of people Ex. Bernini, Artemisia Gentileschi,
Country Gentry	The term "country gentry" typically refers to the landed elite or rural nobility in a country, particularly in England. Here's a concise overview: - Definition: The country gentry were landowners and aristocrats who lived in rural areas and held significant influence over local society and politics. They typically owned large estates and were involved in agricultural activities. - Social Status: The country gentry occupied a privileged position in society, enjoying wealth, prestige, and political power. They often held positions of authority within their local communities and participated in regional governance. - Lifestyle: Members of the country gentry lived primarily on their estates, where they managed agricultural production, maintained large households, and participated in leisure activities such as hunting, riding, and social gatherings. - Political Influence: The country gentry played a crucial role in English politics, particularly in the pre-industrial era. They were often elected to represent their counties in Parliament and exerted influence over government policies and decisions. - Decline: The influence of the country gentry began to decline in the 19th century with the rise of industrialization, urbanization, and social reforms. However, their legacy continues to be felt in the English countryside and in the traditions of rural aristocracy.
Huguenots	French Calvinists
Politiques	Movers and shakers, lower aristocracy, upper class, have sway, prioritize stability of state over united faith, moderates
House of Commons	The House of Commons is one of the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the other being the House of Lords. Here's a concise overview: - Composition: The House of Commons is composed of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public in general elections. Each MP represents a single parliamentary constituency. - Legislative Role: The primary function of the House of Commons is to debate and pass legislation. It is responsible for proposing, debating, and amending bills, as well as scrutinizing the actions of the government. - Executive Oversight: The House of Commons holds the government accountable through mechanisms such as question times, debates, and select committees. MPs question government ministers, scrutinize their policies and decisions, and provide oversight of government activities. - Financial Powers: The House of Commons has exclusive control over financial matters, including the power to approve government spending and taxation. All bills related to taxation and public expenditure must originate in the House of Commons. - Speaker: The presiding officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, who is elected by MPs. The Speaker maintains order during debates, ensures that parliamentary rules are followed, and represents the House of Commons to the monarch and the House of Lords. - Role in Legislation: For a bill to become law, it must be approved by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. However, the House of Commons has the ultimate authority in most cases, as it can overrule amendments made by the House of Lords and invoke the Parliament Acts to pass legislation without the Lords' consent.
Bullion	- Bullion refers to precious metals, particularly gold and silver, that are valued by weight and purity. - It is often in the form of bars or ingots and is traded as a commodity in financial markets. - Bullion is considered a safe-haven investment during times of economic uncertainty or inflation. - Central banks and investors buy and hold bullion as a store of value and a hedge against currency devaluation. - Bullion can be physically owned or traded through financial instruments such as exchange-traded funds (ETFs) or futures contracts.
Flanders	- Flanders is a historical region located in the Low Countries, encompassing parts of present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. - Known for its rich cultural heritage, Flanders was a prosperous center of trade, commerce, and art during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - The region was historically divided into smaller counties and lordships, with Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp emerging as prominent cities. - Flanders was a battleground during various European conflicts, including the Hundred Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, due to its strategic location and economic importance. - Today, Flanders is a predominantly Dutch-speaking region within Belgium, known for its distinctive culture, Flemish art, and medieval architecture.
The Fronde	Occurred in 1648-53 when Louis XIV was only 10 yrs old (yes he was still king) Some civil conflicts in France where nobles retaliated against Cardinal Richelieu's policies which weakened them. Cardinal Mazarin fought as Louis XIV and won.
Divine Right	Absolutists’ justification for their right to rule Divine Right said they had the approval of God and acted on the word of God
Interregnum	- An interregnum refers to a period of time when there is no ruling monarch or leader. - It often occurs between the reigns of two monarchs, either due to the death, abdication, or overthrow of a ruler without a clear successor. - Interregnums can lead to power struggles, political instability, and uncertainty about the future governance of a country or territory. - During an interregnum, temporary governing bodies or regents may be appointed to maintain order and continuity until a new ruler is chosen or a succession crisis is resolved. - Interregnums have occurred throughout history in various regions and civilizations, with notable examples including the periods between monarchies in ancient Rome, medieval Europe, and early modern times.
Franchise	- Franchise refers to the right or privilege granted by a company or government to individuals or entities to operate a business or provide goods or services using the company's name, brand, and business model. - Franchisees pay an initial fee and ongoing royalties in exchange for the right to use the franchisor's trademarks, marketing materials, and support services. - Franchising allows for rapid business expansion with minimal capital investment by leveraging the efforts and investments of independent franchisees. - Common types of franchises include fast-food restaurants, retail stores, hotels, and service-based businesses such as cleaning services or fitness centers. - Franchising offers benefits such as brand recognition, established business practices, and ongoing training and support, but franchisees must adhere to strict operational guidelines set by the franchisor.
Dutch East India Company	The Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) was a powerful trading corporation established by the Netherlands in the 17th century. Here's a brief overview: - Formation: Founded in 1602, the VOC was granted a government charter by the Dutch Republic to establish and maintain a monopoly on Dutch trade in Asia. - Trade: The VOC conducted extensive trade in spices, textiles, tea, porcelain, and other valuable commodities between Europe and Asia, particularly in the Indian Ocean region and the Indonesian archipelago. - Colonial Expansion: The company established numerous trading posts, settlements, and colonies in Asia, including present-day Indonesia, Sri Lanka, South Africa, and Taiwan, to facilitate its trade networks and protect its interests. - Military Power: The VOC maintained its own army and navy to protect its trading interests and enforce Dutch monopoly in the regions it operated. - Decline: Despite its initial success and profitability, the VOC faced financial difficulties due to corruption, mismanagement, and competition from other European powers. It was dissolved in 1799, and its possessions were nationalized by the Dutch government. - Legacy: The VOC played a significant role in shaping global trade patterns and European colonial expansion in Asia. It also had a lasting impact on the economies, cultures, and societies of the regions where it operated.
Mestizos	Described mixed European & Native American people
Creoles	People of spanish ancestry try born in the Americas
Atlantic Economy	- The Atlantic economy refers to the interconnected economic activities and trade networks between Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the early modern period (16th to 18th centuries). - It was characterized by the transatlantic slave trade, the exchange of goods such as sugar, tobacco, cotton, and rum between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, and the movement of people, capital, and resources across the Atlantic Ocean. - European colonial powers, such as Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands, established colonies in the Americas to exploit natural resources, establish plantations, and extract wealth. - The Atlantic economy was fueled by the forced labor of enslaved Africans, who were transported to the Americas in large numbers to work on plantations and in mines. - The triangular trade route connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, with goods such as firearms, textiles, and alcohol exchanged for enslaved Africans in Africa, who were then transported to the Americas to produce cash crops, which were in turn sent back to Europe. - The Atlantic economy contributed to the rise of capitalism, the growth of European colonial empires, and the development of global trade networks, but it also had devastating consequences, including the exploitation and enslavement of millions of Africans and the decimation of indigenous populations in the Americas.

League of Cambrai	- The League of Cambrai was a military alliance formed in 1508 by Pope Julius II, King Louis XII of France, Emperor Maximilian I, and Ferdinand II of Aragon (Spain) to counter the growing power of the Republic of Venice in Italy. - The alliance led to the War of the League of Cambrai (1508-1516), a series of conflicts in Italy aimed at weakening Venice's influence and territorial control, ultimately resulting in the Treaty of Noyon in 1516, which saw Venice cede significant territories to its adversaries.
100 Years War	France Vs. England (1337-1453) Caused by disagreements over rights to land, successions to the French throne, and economic conflicts. Mainly who would inherit the French throne after Charles IV of France died. Very begining it was French sea raids on English towns which failed, most of the war was fought in France. England had early sucess, At Cre’cy (1346), english longbowmen beat French knight & crossbowmen because longbowmen cause shoot very fast. Allowed them to push to the boarders of Paris. Joan of Arc was a French peasant girl who inspired and led French attacks forcing English to retreat from Orle’ans. She was made co-comander of an entire army. Had many sucesses in many cities, but was captured and burned at stake. French still continued its victories. Joan was a major part of French victory. France win Aftermath in France: 100s sokiders + citizens died, 100,000s of acresfarmland ruined ->economy in shambles, distupted trade, heavy taxes Aftermath in England: 5 Million lbs spent on war -> fanacial loss, raised taxes. Pros of the war: stimulated technological expermentation with artillery, cannons were made -> stone walls now beatable, stimulated development of English Parliament.
Great Schism	Point in time where there were two, then three Popes
Babylonian Captivity	Point in time where the Popes and the papacy lived lavish lives in Avignon, France and the literal papal states (Italy) was left popeless Reference to 70 year historical period of Jewish exile in Babylon
Council of Trent	20-year council, consisting of leaders and reformers within the Catholic Church, a reaction to the Prot. Ref, meant to reform the Catholic Church Literally did nothing
Conciliarism	- Conciliarism was a medieval ecclesiastical theory that advocated for the supremacy of general church councils over the papacy in matters of doctrine and governance. - It emerged as a response to papal abuses and corruption, with proponents arguing that councils, composed of bishops and clergy from across the church, should have the ultimate authority to decide on matters such as papal election, doctrinal disputes, and church reform.
Protestant Reformation	The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that led to the split within Western Christianity and the emergence of Protestantism. : - Origins: The Reformation began in the early 16th century in Europe, sparked by criticisms of the Catholic Church's practices and teachings, including corruption, indulgences, and the authority of the pope. - Key Figures: Martin Luther, a German monk, is often credited with initiating the Reformation by posting his Ninety-five Theses in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences. Other key figures included John Calvin in Switzerland and Huldrych Zwingli in Germany. - Core Beliefs: Protestants rejected several key Catholic doctrines, such as papal authority, the sacraments, and the veneration of saints. They emphasized the authority of the Bible and the concept of salvation by faith alone. - Spread: The Reformation spread rapidly across Europe, fueled by the printing press, which allowed for the dissemination of reformist ideas, and supported by the political ambitions of various rulers who sought to challenge the authority of the Catholic Church. - Impact: The Reformation had profound social, political, and cultural consequences, leading to religious wars, the fragmentation of Christendom, and the rise of nation-states. It also sparked a period of intellectual ferment and contributed to the emergence of modernity in Western Europe.
Counter-Reformation	The Counter-Reformation, also known as the Catholic Reformation, was a movement within the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. : - Objectives: The Counter-Reformation aimed to combat the spread of Protestantism and address the internal issues and criticisms within the Catholic Church. - Council of Trent: One of the central events of the Counter-Reformation was the Council of Trent (1545-1563), a series of meetings held by Catholic leaders to address doctrinal issues, reform practices, and reaffirm Catholic teachings in response to Protestant challenges. - Reforms: The Counter-Reformation led to various reforms within the Catholic Church, including efforts to combat corruption and abuses among clergy, promote education and literacy among the faithful, and strengthen the authority of the papacy and traditional Catholic teachings. - Missionary Efforts: The Counter-Reformation also saw a renewed focus on missionary activity, both within Europe and in newly discovered territories, aimed at re-converting Protestants and spreading Catholicism to non-Christian regions. - Cultural and Artistic Influence: The Counter-Reformation had a significant impact on art, architecture, and culture, with the Catholic Church commissioning grandiose works of art and architecture to inspire piety and counter the influence of Protestant iconoclasm. - Overall, the Counter-Reformation helped solidify Catholicism as a dominant religious force in Europe and beyond and contributed to the shaping of modern Catholic identity and practice.
Catholic Reformation	- The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a movement within the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. - It involved efforts to combat the spread of Protestantism, address internal issues within the Church, reaffirm Catholic teachings, and promote reforms through initiatives such as the Council of Trent and missionary activities.
Concordat of Bologna	The Concordat of Bologna, signed in 1516 between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X, was a bilateral agreement that granted the French crown significant control over ecclesiastical appointments and revenues within France. : - Context: The Concordat was a response to longstanding tensions between the French monarchy and the papacy over the appointment of bishops, abbots, and other church officials, as well as the taxation of church lands. - Key Provisions: The Concordat gave the French king the right to nominate candidates for vacant bishoprics and abbacies, subject to papal approval. It also established a system of annates, or first-fruits, whereby the French crown collected a portion of the revenue from ecclesiastical appointments. - Impact: The Concordat of Bologna strengthened the authority of the French monarchy over the Catholic Church in France, reducing papal influence and increasing royal control over ecclesiastical affairs. It also served as a model for similar agreements between other European monarchs and the papacy.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre	protestants slaughtered by mobs caused a civil war for 15 years in Paris plotted by Catherine de Medici
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges	The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges was a decree issued by King Charles VII of France in 1438, which aimed to assert the independence of the Gallican Church from papal authority. : - Context: The Pragmatic Sanction was a response to conflicts between the French monarchy and the papacy over issues such as papal taxation, appointments to ecclesiastical offices, and the influence of the Avignon Papacy. - Key Provisions: The decree asserted the supremacy of general councils over the pope in matters of church governance and reaffirmed the authority of the French crown to regulate ecclesiastical affairs within France. It also limited papal power to appoint French bishops and collect taxes from the French clergy. - Impact: The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges marked a significant victory for the French monarchy in its ongoing struggle for independence from papal control. It strengthened royal authority over the Gallican Church and contributed to the development of Gallicanism, a theological and political movement advocating for greater autonomy for the French church.
Edict of Nantes	document by Henry IV of France that helped restore peace in France by granting religious tolerance & equality to Huguenots that ended French wars of religion
Spanish Armada	Sent by Philip II (King of Spain) to England to establish Catholicism by replacing Protestant Elizabeth I with Catholic Mary of Scots Defeated by English fleet
Thirty Years War	The Thirty Years' War was a devastating conflict that ravaged Europe from 1618 to 1648, primarily centered in the Holy Roman Empire. : - Causes: The war was sparked by religious, political, and territorial tensions within the Holy Roman Empire, exacerbated by the Protestant Reformation and the power struggles between Catholic and Protestant states. - Phases: The war can be divided into four main phases: the Bohemian Phase (1618-1625), the Danish Phase (1625-1629), the Swedish Phase (1630-1635), and the French Phase (1635-1648). Each phase saw shifting alliances and involvement of various European powers. - Impact: The war led to widespread destruction, famine, and disease across Central Europe, resulting in an estimated eight million deaths. It also caused significant economic disruption and social upheaval, leading to the decline of the Holy Roman Empire and the rise of nation-states. - Peace of Westphalia: The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established the principles of state sovereignty and religious tolerance within the Holy Roman Empire. It marked the beginning of a new era in European diplomacy and laid the groundwork for the modern state system.
Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands	The Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands, also known as the Eighty Years' War or the Dutch Revolt, was a protracted conflict that took place from 1568 to 1648 between the Spanish Habsburg Empire and the Dutch provinces seeking independence. : - Causes: The revolt was fueled by religious, political, and economic grievances, including the imposition of Spanish rule by King Philip II, religious persecution of Protestantism, and economic exploitation through heavy taxation and monopolies. - Key Events: The revolt began with a series of uprisings in response to Spanish repression, including the iconoclastic fury of 1566 and the Beeldenstorm. It escalated into open warfare in 1568 when William of Orange led a rebellion against Spanish rule. - Phases: The revolt can be divided into several phases, including the early stages of rebellion, the Twelve Years' Truce (1609-1621), and the final stages leading to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. - Impact: The Dutch Revolt resulted in the independence of the northern provinces of the Netherlands, which formed the Dutch Republic, while the southern provinces remained under Spanish control and eventually became modern Belgium. The conflict had profound effects on European geopolitics, religious tolerance, and the emergence of the Dutch Republic as a major economic and colonial power.
French Wars of Religion	The French Wars of Religion were a series of conflicts that took place in France from the late 16th to the early 17th centuries between Catholics and Protestants. : - Causes: The wars were fueled by religious and political tensions arising from the spread of Protestantism in France, particularly Calvinism, and the resistance of Catholics to Protestant influence. - Key Events: The wars began with the Massacre of Vassy in 1562, where Catholic forces attacked Huguenot (French Protestant) worshippers, sparking open conflict. Subsequent wars included the War of the Three Henrys, culminating in the assassination of King Henry III in 1589. - Participants: The wars involved various factions, including Catholics led by the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, and Protestants led by the Huguenot nobility, notably the Bourbon prince Henry of Navarre (later King Henry IV). - Edict of Nantes: The conflicts were temporarily resolved in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry IV, which granted religious toleration to Protestants and ended open hostilities. - Legacy: The French Wars of Religion left a deep mark on French society, resulting in significant loss of life, destruction, and economic disruption. The conflicts also contributed to the centralization of royal power and the emergence of France as a predominantly Catholic nation.
Peace of Augsburg	Enacted by Charles V HRE Allowed German princes to choose whether their territory was Catholic or Lutheran DID NOT INCLUDE CALVINIST
Peace of Westphalia	Ended 30 yrs. war
Great European Witch Hunt	The Great European Witch Hunt refers to a period of intense persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft in Europe, primarily during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. : - Context: The witch hunts occurred against the backdrop of religious, social, and economic upheaval in Europe, including the Protestant Reformation, Catholic Counter-Reformation, and economic hardships such as crop failures and epidemics. - Accusations: During this time, widespread fears of witchcraft and demonic influence led to accusations against mostly women, but also men, believed to be practicing witchcraft. Accusations often stemmed from personal vendettas, societal prejudices, or religious fervor. - Trials and Persecution: Thousands of individuals were subjected to trials, often conducted by ecclesiastical or secular courts, where they faced torture and coerced confessions. Many were sentenced to death by hanging, burning at the stake, or other gruesome methods. - Impact: The witch hunts resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of people across Europe, particularly in regions like Germany, Switzerland, and parts of Scandinavia. The hunts instilled fear and paranoia in communities, leading to social fragmentation and the erosion of trust. - Decline: The witch hunts gradually declined by the mid-17th century, as skepticism grew regarding the reliability of witchcraft accusations and as secular authorities began to intervene to curtail the excesses of the trials. The Enlightenment and the rise of rationalism also played a role in challenging belief in witchcraft.
Capture of Constantinople	The Capture of Constantinople refers to the conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453. : - Context: Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, had been a key strategic and cultural center for centuries. By the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was weakened by internal strife, economic decline, and external pressures from the Ottoman Turks. - Ottoman Siege: The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, besieged Constantinople with a massive army and navy. The city was heavily fortified, but Mehmed's forces employed innovative tactics, including the use of cannons, to breach the walls. - Fall of Constantinople: After a fierce and prolonged siege, the city's defenses were breached, and Ottoman forces stormed Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was killed in battle, and the city fell to the Ottomans. - Consequences: The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of Ottoman dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean. It also had far-reaching consequences for Europe, sparking fear and leading to the Age of Exploration as Europeans sought new trade routes to bypass Ottoman control. Additionally, the fall of Constantinople prompted a wave of Byzantine scholars and artists to flee to Western Europe, sparking a revival of classical learning known as the Renaissance.
English Civil War	The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political upheavals that took place in England from 1642 to 1651. : - Causes: The English Civil War was fueled by tensions between King Charles I and Parliament over issues such as taxation, religion, and the extent of royal authority. Conflicts between supporters of the king (Royalists or Cavaliers) and supporters of Parliament (Parliamentarians or Roundheads) escalated into open warfare. - Key Events: The war can be divided into two main phases: the First Civil War (1642-1646) and the Second Civil War (1648-1649). The First Civil War saw battles such as Edgehill, Marston Moor, and Naseby, while the Second Civil War saw further conflicts and the trial and execution of King Charles I. - Outcome: The Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, emerged victorious in the English Civil War, leading to the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell's leadership. However, internal divisions and power struggles within the Parliamentarian camp ultimately led to the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 under King Charles II. - Legacy: The English Civil War had profound consequences for English politics, society, and culture. It led to the execution of a monarch, the temporary abolition of the monarchy, and the rise of parliamentary democracy. It also sparked debates about constitutional government, religious tolerance, and the rights of citizens, shaping the course of British history for centuries to come.
Glorious Revolution(1688)	A relatively peaceful transfer of power from the overthrow of James II, to William II and Mary II Transferred state power from the monarch to parliament under the English Bill of Rights(1689)
Peace of Utrecht	ended war of spanish succession balance-of-power
Siege of Vienna	- The Siege of Vienna occurred in 1683 when the Ottoman Empire, led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa, laid siege to the city of Vienna, the capital of the Habsburg Monarchy. - The siege was ultimately lifted due to the successful defense of the city by a combined Christian army, including troops from the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, and the Papal States, led by King John III Sobieski of Poland, marking a turning point in the Ottoman–Habsburg wars and preventing the advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe.
Pugachev’s Rebellion	- Pugachev's Rebellion, also known as the Cossack Rebellion, was a major uprising against Russian imperial rule led by Yemelyan Pugachev, a Cossack, in the 1770s. - The rebellion was fueled by grievances against serfdom, high taxes, and oppressive government policies, and it briefly threatened the stability of the Russian Empire before being brutally suppressed by government forces.
Partition of Poland	- The Partition of Poland refers to the division and annexation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by neighboring powers, primarily Russia, Prussia, and Austria, in the late 18th century. - The partitions occurred in three stages: in 1772, 1793, and 1795, resulting in the disappearance of Poland from the map of Europe for over a century and the loss of its sovereignty until its re-emergence after World War I.
Seven Years’ War	The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a global conflict involving major European powers and their colonial possessions. : - Causes: The war was fueled by long standing colonial rivalries, territorial disputes, and struggles for dominance between European powers. Key issues included control over North American territories, trade routes, and colonies in India. - Participants: The major powers involved in the war included Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and their respective allies. The conflict also spilled over into colonial territories in North America, Africa, India, and the Caribbean. - Key Theaters: The war was fought on multiple fronts, including Europe, North America, South America, Africa, and Asia. In Europe, the conflict was characterized by battles between Prussia and Austria, while in North America, it was known as the French and Indian War. - Outcome: The Seven Years' War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The treaty resulted in significant territorial changes, with Great Britain emerging as the dominant colonial power and acquiring vast territories in North America, India, and the Caribbean. France ceded its North American territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain and its Indian territories to Britain and Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain but gained Louisiana from France. - Impact: The Seven Years' War had far-reaching consequences, reshaping the global balance of power and setting the stage for future conflicts, including the American Revolutionary War. It also had significant financial implications, contributing to Britain's growing national debt and leading to increased tensions between Britain and its American colonies.
Agricultural Revolution	- The Agricultural Revolution was a period of significant innovation and change in agricultural practices that occurred in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. - Key developments included the adoption of new farming techniques such as crop rotation, enclosure of common lands, and selective breeding of livestock, which led to increased agricultural productivity and output. - The Agricultural Revolution contributed to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization by providing a surplus of food and labor, laying the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution.
Scientific Revolution	The Scientific Revolution was a period of profound intellectual and cultural transformation that occurred in Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. : - Context: The Scientific Revolution was characterized by a shift in thinking from traditional authority-based knowledge to empirical observation, experimentation, and rational inquiry. It was influenced by Renaissance humanism, the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts, and advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and technology. - Key Figures: Prominent figures of the Scientific Revolution include Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, and Francis Bacon. Their groundbreaking discoveries and theories challenged prevailing notions about the natural world and laid the foundation for modern science. - Key Discoveries: The Scientific Revolution produced significant advancements across various fields, including astronomy (Copernican heliocentrism), physics (laws of motion and universal gravitation), biology (taxonomy and classification), chemistry (alchemy to modern chemistry), and medicine (anatomy and physiology). - Impact: The Scientific Revolution had profound implications for society, religion, and philosophy. It promoted empirical observation and experimentation as the basis for knowledge, leading to the development of the scientific method. It also challenged religious orthodoxy and traditional beliefs about the natural world, contributing to the rise of secularism and the Enlightenment. The Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for the technological innovations and scientific progress that would shape the modern world.
Urbanization	Urbanization is the process of population concentration in cities, accompanied by the growth and expansion of urban areas. : - Causes: Urbanization is driven by various factors, including rural-to-urban migration, natural population growth, industrialization, and economic opportunities in urban centers. Factors such as improved transportation, infrastructure, and communication also contribute to urbanization. - Impacts: Urbanization has profound social, economic, and environmental consequences. It leads to changes in lifestyle, employment patterns, and social interactions. Urban areas often offer better access to education, healthcare, and services but also face challenges such as housing shortages, congestion, pollution, and inequality. - Global Trends: Urbanization is a global phenomenon, with the majority of the world's population now living in urban areas. It is particularly pronounced in developing countries, where rapid urbanization strains infrastructure and services. However, urbanization also drives economic growth, innovation, and cultural exchange, making cities hubs of opportunity and diversity.
Industrial Revolution	The Industrial Revolution was a period of profound economic, technological, and social change that occurred in Europe and North America from the late 18th to the early 19th century. : - Causes: The Industrial Revolution was fueled by a combination of factors, including technological innovations, such as the steam engine and mechanized textile production, which increased productivity and efficiency. Other factors included urbanization, population growth, capital accumulation, and access to natural resources and markets. - Key Innovations: The Industrial Revolution saw the mechanization of production processes, leading to the rise of factories and mass production. Key innovations included the steam engine, spinning jenny, power loom, and mechanical reaper, which revolutionized agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, and communication. - Economic Impact: The Industrial Revolution transformed economies by shifting from agrarian-based economies to industrial economies. It led to increased productivity, economic growth, and wealth creation, but also to significant social and economic inequalities, as well as urbanization and migration from rural areas to cities. - Social Impact: The Industrial Revolution brought profound social changes, including the rise of the working class, urbanization, and changes in family structure and social relations. It also led to improvements in living standards, education, and healthcare over time, but also to harsh working conditions, child labor, and environmental degradation. - Global Impact: The Industrial Revolution had far-reaching effects beyond Europe and North America, influencing economies, societies, and cultures worldwide. It laid the foundation for modern industrialized societies, transformed global trade and transportation networks, and contributed to colonialism and imperialism.
French Revolution	The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799. : - Causes: The French Revolution was fueled by a combination of economic, social, and political factors, including widespread poverty, inequality, and discontent among the lower classes; financial crisis and debt incurred by the monarchy; and resentment toward the absolute monarchy and privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility. - Key Events: The French Revolution unfolded in several phases, including the Estates-General meeting in 1789, the storming of the Bastille, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the Reign of Terror under the radical Jacobins, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. - Key Figures: Prominent figures of the French Revolution include Maximilien Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat, Georges Danton, and Napoleon Bonaparte. These figures played pivotal roles in shaping the course of the revolution and its aftermath. - Outcomes: The French Revolution led to the abolition of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. It also resulted in radical social and political reforms, including land redistribution, secularization of the state, and the abolition of feudal privileges. - Legacy: The French Revolution had a profound impact on France and the world, inspiring subsequent revolutions and political movements advocating for democracy, liberty, and equality. It also brought about significant changes in French society, politics, and culture, shaping the course of modern history.
First Republic/Empire	The First French Republic and Empire refer to two distinct phases in French history following the French Revolution. : First French Republic: - Establishment: The First French Republic was established on September 22, 1792, following the abolition of the monarchy and the execution of King Louis XVI during the French Revolution. - Characteristics: The First Republic was characterized by republican ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It featured a democratic government structure, including a National Convention and later a Directory, but was also marked by political instability, factionalism, and violence, including the Reign of Terror. - End: The First French Republic came to an end with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power and established himself as First Consul, marking the transition to the Napoleonic era. First French Empire: - Establishment: The First French Empire was established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804, following his rise to power as First Consul and the passage of the Constitution of the Year XII, which proclaimed him Emperor of the French. - Characteristics: The First Empire was characterized by Napoleonic rule, centralized authority, and military conquests. Napoleon implemented a series of reforms, including the Napoleonic Code, which codified French law, and administrative reforms aimed at modernizing and centralizing the state. - Expansion: Under Napoleon's leadership, France expanded its territory through military campaigns across Europe, establishing a vast empire that encompassed much of continental Europe at its height. - End: The First French Empire came to an end with Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and his subsequent abdication. This led to the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and the Bourbon Restoration in France.
French revolts of 1830	Louis Philippe abdicated (favor the rich)-> ppl establish republic Argument: Socialist build gov workhouses to employ poor, but middle class men shut workhouses down -> revolt National Assembly elect Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte)
Second Republic/Empire	The Second French Republic and Empire were two distinct phases in French history following the Revolution of 1848. : Second French Republic: - Establishment: The Second French Republic was established in 1848 following the abdication of King Louis-Philippe and the end of the July Monarchy. It was proclaimed after the Revolution of 1848, which saw widespread popular unrest and the overthrow of the monarchy. - Characteristics: The Second Republic was characterized by republican ideals of democracy, liberty, and social reform. It featured a parliamentary system of government, with a President elected by universal male suffrage. The constitution of 1848 provided for a strong executive branch and a unicameral legislature. - End: The Second Republic came to an end with the coup of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) in 1851. Louis-Napoléon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, dissolved the National Assembly and established himself as President for Life, paving the way for the Second French Empire. Second French Empire: - Establishment: The Second French Empire was established by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) in 1852, following his coup d'état and the adoption of a new constitution that granted him extensive powers as Emperor of the French. - Characteristics: The Second Empire was characterized by authoritarian rule, centralized authority, and economic modernization. Napoleon III implemented a series of public works projects, urban planning initiatives, and industrialization efforts aimed at modernizing France and stimulating economic growth. - Expansion: The Second Empire saw France engage in military campaigns and imperial expansion, including the colonization of territories in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. Napoleon III's foreign policy aimed to enhance France's international prestige and secure its position as a major European power. - End: The Second French Empire came to an end with France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 and the capture of Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan. This led to the establishment of the short-lived Third French Republic and the exile of Napoleon III to Britain.
Peace of Paris	The Peace of Paris refers to several peace treaties signed at various times in history, but one significant instance is the Peace of Paris of 1783, which ended the American Revolutionary War. : - Signed in 1783: The Peace of Paris of 1783 was signed in Paris on September 3, 1783, by representatives of Great Britain, the United States, France, and Spain, officially ending the hostilities of the American Revolutionary War. - Terms: The treaty recognized the independence of the United States from Great Britain, establishing the boundaries of the new nation as stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. Britain also agreed to withdraw its troops from American territory and to grant fishing rights to American fishermen off the coast of Newfoundland. - Consequences: The Peace of Paris of 1783 marked the formal recognition of the United States as a sovereign nation and the end of British colonial rule in North America. It set the stage for the development of diplomatic relations between the United States and European powers and the establishment of the new nation's government and institutions.
Haitian Revolution	FR -> National Assembly -> didn’t grant rights to slaves in Fr. colony island Saint- Domingue (Caribbean) Slaves revolt w/ help from Spain and Britain (to gain some land) Slave L’Ouverture (originally spanish general) join Fr. and kick out Spain and Britain -> made independent decisions -> Napoleon attempt to take control and killed L’Ouverture -> Successor Dessaline defeat Fr, claim independence, and rename island to Haiti
Congress of Vienna	a meeting of the Quadruple alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, & GB restoration of France to fashion a general peace settlement after defeat of napoleon’s france in 1814
Treaty of Nanking	The Treaty of Nanking was signed in 1842 between Great Britain and China, ending the First Opium War. : - Signed in 1842: The Treaty of Nanking was signed on August 29, 1842, aboard HMS Cornwallis, anchored at Nanking, China. - Terms: The treaty imposed several terms on China, including the cession of the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain, the opening of five treaty ports for British trade and residence (including Shanghai), the payment of a large indemnity to Britain, and the granting of extraterritorial rights to British subjects in China. - Consequences: The Treaty of Nanking marked a significant defeat for China and the beginning of a series of unequal treaties between China and Western powers. It opened China to foreign trade and influence, weakened the Qing Dynasty's authority, and contributed to a period of internal unrest and foreign intervention in China.

Joan of Arc	French female soldier during 100 Years War, said she had angels and God speaking to her and telling her to fight Turned the tide in favor of France Burned as a heretic
Marsiglio of Padua	Italian lawyer and university official The Defender of the Peace (Book) State great unifying power of society with church subordinate Church power should reside in council of laymen and priest superior to the pope (led to idea of conciliarists) Excommunicated
Petrarch	Explored ruins of Ancient Roman Empire in Italy Believe ancient writers and artist of Rome reached perfection Developed idea of Humanism
Isabella & Ferdinand (Spain)	Spain loose confederation of separate kingdoms Marriage constituted a union of two royal houses Lower aristocratic power by appointing lesser land-owners Made deal with pope Alexander VI to appoint bishops in Spain, establish national church, and make $ With $, fund military to complete reconquista (take back Muslim territory in south) Unify Iberian Peninsula politically when grandson Philip II join Portugal to Spanish crown
Christopher Columbus	Sponsored by Ferdinand and Isbella Portuguese explorer “Sailed the ocean blue in 1492,” discovered the Americas
Cortez	Conquistador Conquered the Mexica Empire (Aztec Empire in Mexico and Central America) Staged civil war with Tlaxcalas and other subjects (angry at tributes to Mexica) Overthrew Mexica leader Montezuma in Tenochtitlana Conquer all over Mexico
Pizarro	Conquistador Conquer Inca Empire (Peruvian empire with capital city Cuzco) Inca Empire leader, Atahualpa, plan to ambush spanish and invite them to Cajamarca Spanish ambush him instead, Atahualpa is executed, Cuzco falls, and land is plundered
Machiavelli	Humanist & Political theorist during the Renaissance, still relevant today Wrote The Prince about Lorenzo de Medici which argued: The function of a ruler or gov is to preserve order and security– weak leadership leads to disorder To preserve the state, a ruler should use whatever means– brutality, lying, manipulation “It is much safer for the prince to be feared than loved” His primary example of a good leader: Cesare Borgia
Erasmus	Dutch Christian humanist Wrote The Edu of a Christian Prince and The Praise of Folly Translated the New Testament to Latin Two fundamental themes throughout his work: edu of the Bible and the classics are the means to reform & renewal should be based on “the philosophy of Christ” His work led to Protestant Reformation but he was never a follower of Luther
Thomas More	English humanist, began as a lawyer Author of Utopia– Greek word for “nowhere” Describes an island where all children receive good edu in Greco-Roman classics, poverty and hunger are solved by the government
John Wycliffe	English scholar and theologian Denied papal authority Scripture alone should be the standard of Christian belief and practice Lollards = followers of Wycliffe First to translate Bible into English
Jan Hus (Protestant)	Denied papal authority Followers oppose church wealth and power Translated Bible into local Czech language Defeated the pope and emperor armies -> forced to recognize Hussite Church in Bohemia
Leonardo da Vinci	Considered true Renaissance man with many talents Sculpture, painter, inventor Works: The Last Supper, Mona Lisa, David, Ornithopter (glider)
Michelangelo	One of the most famous painters and sculptors during the Renaissance Good example of a Renaissance man Worked for the Pope to paint frescos on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508-1512
Jan van Eyck	Netherlands, painter during Renaissance
Laura Cereta	hj
Pope Leo X	Medici Pope, very corrupt, ate on gold plates Issued papal bull excommunicating Luther
Martin Luther	Author of 95 Theses Founder of Protestantism, started Reformation against the Catholic Church Believed indulgences were not a true way to gain salvation, believed in faith alone
Calvin	Founder of Calvinism
Knox	**Follower of Calvin, esta. Calvinist branch Presbyterian church in Scotland***
Henry VIII (England)	Founder of the Anglican Church because the Catholic Church wouldn’t let him divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon Six wives in an attempt to get sons, got one (Edward) but we don’t remember him because he became King and died in like days Father of Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) and Elizabeth I
Anne Boleyn	Henry VIII’s second wife Mother of Elizabeth I Beheaded after she didn’t give him sons
Francis I (France)	Fr. need $ after Habsburg-Valois wars Made deal with Pope Leo X (Concordat of Bologna) Concordat of Bologna: pope receives first year’s income of newly named bishops and abbots in Fr. and Fr. ruler’s select Fr. abbots and bishops in return Concordat of Bologna ensure rich supplement of money and offices
Henry II (France)	Accidentally shot in the face during tournament and died 3 sons had poor leadership and dominated by mother Catherine de’ Medici Fr Nobles took advantage of weak monarchy and adopt Calvinism to have excuse to oppose monarchy and increase their power -> War of the Three Henry’s
Elizabeth I (England)	Middle ground between Protestants and Catholics Brought religious stability to England after her sister, the Catholic Queen Mary, killed a bunch of Protestants Did not marry to preserve stability and her own power Very stable rule, very long rule, very prosperous– you get the idea Believed in divine right End of Tudor dynasty Daughter of Henry VIII
Mary of Scots	Cousin to Elizabeth I Sp King attempted to install her as a Catholic Queen to replace Elizabeth I
Shakespeare	Great playwright during the Renaissance, during Elizabeth I’s time
Henry IV/ of Navarre (France)	Winner of the War of the Three Henrys, Bourbon, Huguenot → converts to Catholic Catherine de Medici’s daughter, Princess Margaret, married to Henry of Navarre (Huguenot) → St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, killed all of Huguenot guests at the wedding (inciting incident) Hen of Navarre (Bourbon) wins, becomes Catholic upon ascending the throne for stability, “Paris is worth a mass.” Passes the Edict of Nantes (1598) - allows religious freedom, allows Huguenots to practice freely in certain regions of Fr
Henry Guise	In War of Three Henrys
Gaspard Coligny	16 February 1519 - 24 August 1572 French Nobleman, Admiral of France, Huguenot leader during French Wars of Religion
Gustavus Adolphus	Swedish King, fought for Protestants, died after being hit by a cannon
Charles V (HRE)	Habsburg Dynasty Defender of Catholic faith Held Diet of Worms (trial for Martin Luther) Signed Edict of Worms & Peace of Augsburg
Philip II (Spain)	“Defender of the Catholic Faith” → tried to marry Mary Tudor, sent the “invincible” Spanish Armada to restore Catholicism in England; defeated During his reign: Spain’s bullion lost value due to Spain’s increasing pop → spread inflation
Margaret, Regent of the Netherlands	- Margaret of Austria, also known as Margaret of Savoy, was a Habsburg princess who served as regent of the Netherlands during the early 16th century. - She was the daughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and married to Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, solidifying political alliances within Europe.
The Duke of Alva	Numerous battle victories in Western Europe and Northern Africa Catholic Sparked Dutch Revolts against Spanish Rule Executed/banished over thousand men
William of Orange (Sp. Netherlands)	Married to Mary of Orange (James II’s daughter) William and Mary of Orange take throne → start of Hanover dynasty (known as the Glorious Revolution, very little blood was shed) Had to sign Eng Bill of Rights in 1689 Monarchy still reigned but Parliament has most of the power → esta. Constitutional monarchy (limited power of the monarchy)
Catherine de Medici (France)	Female Medici → made the Medicis royal by marrying into royalty (made their economic power into political power) Mother of Hen III, instigator of the war of Three Henrys Daughter: Princess Margaret, married to Hen of Navarre
James I (England)	Stuart, Absolutist Scottish cousin of Elizabeth I, becomes King of England after her death
Charles I (England)	Stuart, Absolutist Charles I disliked Parliament, didn’t call until forced to do so in the Petition of Right (lost some power), forced to sign it in order to levy taxes (bc broke) Charles tries to disband Parliament in 1642 → Eng Civil War (Royalists, Cavaliers vs. Roundheads)
James II (England)	Stuart, Absolutist James II is very unpopular bc of Catholic faith Eng nobles fear losing Anglican faith → travel to the Netherlands to James II’s daughter: Mary and George of Orange to persuade them to come to Eng + take the crown Eng nobles go to James II, tell him he has two options: fight and lose, or abdicate (Glorious Revolution) James II flees to Fr

1. Dates: Key events corresponding to each of the following years:

2. Places & Political Entities

3. Ideas: Political & Economic Theories, Ideologies, Philosophies, Theologies, Religions

4. People

5. Concepts, Things, Words to Know

ap euro overall

1. Dates: Key events corresponding to each of the following years:

2. Places & Political Entities

3. Ideas: Political & Economic Theories, Ideologies, Philosophies, Theologies, Religions

4. People

5. Concepts, Things, Words to Know