Farming, Ranching, and Agriculture

Cattle, Cowboys, and Beef Barons

• By the end of the Civil War, up to five million longhorn cattle, descendants of Spanish stock, roamed wild in Texas. These cattle had horns that could spread as wide as eight feet.

• Initially hunted for their hides as there was no method to transport them to eastern markets, the demand for beef rose after the war depleted eastern herds.

• In 1866, the first large herd was driven from Texas to Sedalia, Missouri, but the route proved unmanageable due to various challenges.

• As railroads expanded westward, more favorable routes were found through Kansas and Oklahoma, where grazing was better and fewer farmers' lands were disturbed.

• Joseph G. McCoy established a cattle town in Abilene, Kansas, in 1867, recognizing the potential for a booming cattle trade.

• The Chisholm Trail connected central Texas to Abilene, stretching 500 miles, while other trails like the Western Trail and Goodnight-Loving Trail were also significant for cattle drives.

• Cowboys, typically young men from various backgrounds, drove the cattle and faced hard conditions, low pay, and numerous dangers such as disease and stampedes.

• Cowboys came from diverse backgrounds, including Civil War veterans, immigrants, and African Americans seeking work after the war.

• Cattle drives involved herding 1,000 to 10,000 animals, with 4 million longhorns driven north from 1866 to 1888.

• The introduction of Hereford and other cattle strains improved the quality of beef in Kansas but led to conflicts due to tick-borne diseases affecting eastern cattle.

• Quarantine laws limited the movement of Texas cattle, leading ranchers to adapt.

• The rise of meatpacking industries with figures like G.H. Hammond and Gustavus Swift transformed food production and distribution in the U.S.

• The end of the open range in the late 1880s coincided with the rise of homesteaders and sheepherders, causing conflicts over land use.

• The severe winters and ensuing droughts in the late 1880s significantly impacted cattle ranching profitability.

• Techniques from Mexican ranchers influenced American ranching practices, leading to a more business-oriented approach to cattle raising.

• The Fence-Cutters’ War highlighted conflicts between big and small ranchers over land use, eventually leading to legislative changes.

• Ranchers organized into associations to increase their political influence regarding railroads and market conditions.

• The cowboy's role evolved from transient laborers to permanent positions within a developing cattle business.

Farming on the Plains

• Settler life was challenging despite being less romantic than portrayals.

• Homestead Act of 1862: allowed settlers to claim 160 acres under certain conditions (live on land for 5 years, improve it, pay $30 fee). Alternatively, land could be bought after 6 months at $1.25 per acre.

• Before the Act, government land was sold for revenue; after, it was given away to encourage family farms, viewed as essential for democracy.

• By 1865, 20,000 pioneers migrated west; over the next 40 years, half a million families became homesteaders.

• Many opted to purchase land from railroads or land companies instead of homesteading.

• Challenges for homesteaders:

  • 160 acres often inadequate for a family in dry plains.

  • High costs for livestock, equipment, seed (~$1,000 to start, a significant sum at the time).

  • Weather volatility: varied temperatures, hail, prairie fires, and locust swarms.

  • Did not guarantee yearly crops; reliance on subsistence living during hard years.

• Transportation costs to market were high, and loans had steep interest rates.

• New machinery increased productivity but often accrued debt due to their costs; oversupply drove down grain prices, harming farmers.

• Many homesteaders ultimately failed.

• Prairie land was often unsuitable for farming but ideal for grazing—creating conflicts with cattle ranchers needing larger tracts for successful operations.

• Unscrupulous practices, such as dummy homesteaders, enabled companies to usurp the best land.

• Federal free homestead land policy lasted until 1934, though quality of land diminished over time.

• Railroads expanded markets for crops, encouraging farmers to specialize in cash crops instead of self-sustaining farms.

• Successful farmers adapted by growing drought-resistant grains like sorghum and wheat.

• John S. Pillsbury's flour-milling innovations increased grain demand.

• The prairie, initially thought to be a desert, was fertile with deep-rooted native grasses; tougher steel plows, known as sodbusters, were developed for cultivation.

• Settlers built homes from sod, used corncobs/buffalo chips for fuel, and barbed wire for fencing.

• Post-1883, Joseph Glidden's barbed wire production skyrocketed.

• As settlers disregarded dry climate indicators, drought occurred in the late 1880s and early 1890s, challenging farming viability.

• Dry farming techniques minimally helped but led to severe soil erosion by the 1930s Dust Bowl.

• Imbalance in gender demographics allowed women more legal rights and respect on the frontier; they contributed equally in farming.

• The difficult life on the frontier fostered women's independence, leading to a stronger women's rights movement in the West.

• However, women faced prejudice and restrictions on property ownership and legal rights until the 20th century.

The Frontier Passes into History

• In 1890, the Census Bureau announced the end of the frontier, marking the absence of a discernible frontier line in the west and unbroken lands.

• This announcement had a significant psychological impact on Americans; for the first time, America was without a frontier.

• The frontier was integral to American national identity, representing danger, adventure, opportunity, and freedom.

• With its end, the romanticized vision of the West was over, as the ideal of pioneers and new wildernesses vanished.

• The rapid development in the post-Civil War period meant that Americans did not foresee the consequences of frontier disappearance.

• The frontier served as an escape mechanism; its loss diminished people's sense of agency in shaping their lives.

• Social theorists viewed the frontier as a "safety valve" for the nation, providing migration options during economic hardships.

• Few city workers moved to the frontier; most settlers were from eastern farms or older frontiers. The frontier attracted the young and adventurous.

• Although farmers predominantly moved west, it was mostly rural people, not city dwellers, seeking better opportunities.

• Immigrants often chose frontier settlement over industrial city living.

• The existence of the frontier helped limit unemployment in the east and kept eastern wages higher.

• By the end of the 19th century, the migration pattern had reversed; more people moved to cities for employment than to farms.

• Farmers faced diminished homesteading opportunities as available land became marginal; tied to the land less compared to other countries.

• In 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner published "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," claiming that American history was a study of successive westward expansions.

• Turner argued that frontier experiences shaped American culture, fostering self-reliance and individualism.

• The loss of the frontier marked an abrupt end to a critical cultural foundation for Americans.

• Critics argue that Turner’s thesis overlooks the perspectives of Native Americans, Hispanics, blacks, and women associated with the frontier.

• Despite criticisms, Turner’s work prompted preservation efforts for some virgin lands as national parks.

Farming Becomes a Business

• Post-Civil War Changes: Agriculture in the Mississippi Valley shifted from self-sufficiency to a business model focused on cash crops (wheat, corn, cotton).

• View of Farms: Farms conceptualized as outdoor factories, emphasizing production efficiency.

• Mechanization: Increased mechanization led to higher production, making America the world’s breadbasket and leading to high farm machinery costs.

Consumer Changes

• Rural Purchases: Rural residents began buying manufactured goods instead of making them.

• Mail-order Catalogs: Montgomery Ward and Sears & Roebuck produced catalogs to meet the need for goods in remote areas.

Agribusiness Development

• Bonanza Farms: Large wheat and irrigated farms paved the way for major agribusiness holdings in the 20th century.

  • Economies of scale enabled better pricing and negotiating power with railroads for transportation.

  • Refrigerated rail cars facilitated shipping of fresh produce to urban markets.

Southern Agriculture Transformation

• Capital Shortage: Post-Reconstruction South faced a capital shortage, leading farmers to operate on credit.

• Crop Lien System: Farmers received credit at high interest for their crops, often leading to debt and dependency on cash crops like cotton.

  • This system led to landlessness among poor farmers, causing a rise in tenant farming and sharecropping.

Economic Pressures on Farmers

• Market Challenges: High fixed costs, overproduction, and competition from foreign markets drove prices down, hurting farmers’ profitability.

• Trusts and Taxes: Agricultural trusts inflated prices; property taxes were burdensome due to overassessment.

• Domestic Marketing Issues: Multiple middlemen took a share of profits, leaving farmers struggling.

Shifts in Farming Practices

• Diverse Farming: Farmers started opting for diverse crops to mitigate risk.

  • Despite challenges, plains farmers had some success, particularly with grains.

Social Dynamics

• Urban vs. Rural: The urban middle class thrived while farming life remained difficult, especially for women.

• Shift in Status: Farmers became politically underrepresented as urban populations grew faster.

Farmers’ Responses to Challenges

• Greenback Movement: Aimed to increase the supply of paper currency to combat deflation.

• National Grange: Founded in 1867, focused on cooperative marketing and establishing member-owned businesses.

• Farmers’ Alliance: Organized to combat high freight costs, evolved into the People’s Party advocating for bimetal currency.

Legislation and Court Cases

• Grange Influence: Farmers enacted laws regulating railroads to impose reasonable shipping rates.

• Munn v. Illinois (1877): Upheld state rights to set maximum freight rates.

• Wabash Case (1886): Limited state regulation of interstate commerce, reserving this power for the federal government.

• Interstate Commerce Act (1887): Established Congressional authority to regulate interstate trade, initially had limited effect but laid groundwork for future regulations.