Defining and Supporting Psychological Development Notes

3.1 Overview

• Psychological development may not always occur as expected, leading to atypical behavior.
• Atypical development: Differs significantly from what is usual or appropriate, involving developmental processes or outcomes.
• Small delays or rapid progress are normal unless they noticeably stand out.
• Terms 'normal' and 'typical' are often used interchangeably.
• Understanding normality is important for recognizing abnormality.
• No clear line exists between normal and abnormal psychological development.
• Exploration of normality and how typical or atypical development, behavior, and mental processes are culturally defined, classified, and categorized.
• Consideration of concepts like 'adaptive', 'maladaptive', 'neurotypicality', and 'neurodiversity'.
• Neurotypicality and neurodiversity explained through developmental disorders like ADHD and autism.
• Examination of the role of mental health workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and organizations in supporting psychological development and mental wellbeing.

3.2 Categorising Behaviour as Typical or Atypical

• Typical and atypical terms are used to describe behavior and mental processes, either generally or regarding a specific characteristic.
• Applies to individuals, groups, crowds, or any collection of people.
• Typical behavior: Occurs usually, is appropriate, and is expected in a given situation; what most people would ordinarily do.
• In relation to an individual, typical means acting as they usually do in a given situation, with temporary variations.
• Atypical behavior: Not typical, differs markedly from what is expected, uncommon, and not what most people would do.
• In relation to an individual, atypical means behaving unusually for them, 'out of character'.
• Example: A friendly person becoming withdrawn is considered atypical.
• Whether behavior is typical or atypical depends on the individual, circumstances, and perspective.
• Factors include whether the behavior is maladaptive, causes personal distress, and comparisons to others of the same age and sex in similar situations.
• Also depends on society's expectations and cultural context.
• Key Questions include: Is the behavior culturally appropriate? Is it statistically rare? Does it cause personal distress? Is it maladaptive? Does it violate social norms?

Social Norms

• Atypical behavior violates society's ideas about acceptability.
• Social norms: Widely held standards governing appropriate behavior in different situations.
• Often not written down, they are generally known ways of behaving.
• Used consciously or unconsciously to judge acceptability of behavior.
• Examples of typical behaviors: thanking for a gift, smiling when happy, feeling sad at a loss.
• Examples of atypical behaviors: infrequent bathing, standing too close, wearing pajamas to a funeral.
• Age-specific and gender-specific norms also influence behavior.
• Short attention span is typical in 2-year-olds but atypical in adults.
• Social norm perspective is useful because norms are widely known and used intuitively.
• Absorbed in childhood through socialization and taken for granted.
• Limitation: Judgments of atypical behavior vary between societies.
• What is atypical in one place may be typical elsewhere.
• Norm violations may be illegal rather than atypical.
• Social norms change over time, altering the views of typical and atypical behavior.
• Example: Online dating was once considered atypical but is now acceptable.
• Consider cigarette smoking: once typical, now increasingly unacceptable and illegal in public settings.
• Social norms also vary across and within cultures.
• Multicultural societies have increasingly variable norms, which tend to become vague or unacceptable in different groups.

Cultural Perspective

• Each culture/ethnic group has norms for acceptable behavior.
• Violating a social norm in one culture may not do so in another.
• Example: Communication with dead ancestors is atypical in some cultures but not in others, where it may be seen as a gift.
• Showing fear at a spider may be typical in one culture but atypical in remote jungle communities is also important to consider.
• Everyday body language also has different meanings across cultures.
• Raised thumb is typical in one culture but an insult in another.
• Gender-specific norms also vary across cultures.
• Wailing at a stranger's funeral is expected in some cultures, especially by women, but atypical in others.
• The cultural perspective must be considered in distinguishing behavior.
• Cultures vary globally and within multicultural societies, values changing over time.
• No universal cross-cultural standard exists for categorizing behavior.

Statistical Rarity

• Statistical perspective assumes behaviors fall in a normal distribution curve.
• Typical and atypical behavior determined by frequency.
• Typical behavior: Occurs most frequently; statistical average.
• Example: Laughing at a funny joke.
• Atypical behavior: Occurs least frequently; statistical extremity.
• Example: Laughing when a loved one dies.
• Statistical perspective is useful when cut-off points are known.
• Example: IQ scores; mean IQ set at 100.
• Individuals within one standard deviation are of 'average intelligence' (typical).
• Individuals more than two standard deviations are 'very superior' or 'extremely low' (atypical).
• What if cut-off points are unknown or arbitrary?
• Dividing lines may be disputable.
• Average IQ is between 85 and 115; scores of 84 or 116 raise questions.
• How to describe those whose IQ falls between average and extremities?
• Intellectual disability, geniuses, obese/thin, alcoholics/non-drinkers, extremely sad/happy are considered atypical.
• Care must be taken not to equate statistical rarity with undesirable behavior.
• Not using illegal drugs is rare and atypical but desirable.
• Voodoo beliefs may be statistically rare (atypical) in one culture but common (typical) in another.
• Some behaviors may be considered atypical despite not being statistically rare.
• Depression is common (1 in 7 Australians) yet associated with atypical behavior.

Personal Distress

• Distress: Being extremely upset and suffering emotionally.
• A natural reaction in everyday life to events like loss, trauma, disease, financial issues, or disappointment.
• If distress is a reasonable response and appropriate in their culture, it is considered typical.
• If distress is intense, disruptive, and persistent, interfering with function for a prolonged period, it is considered atypical.
• Although the personal distress perspective is useful, limitations exist.
• Experience of distress is highly variable among individuals.
• No clear-cut dividing line serves as a reference point.
• Judgment of distress is subjective rather than objective.
• Personal distress alone is not sufficient to categorize atypical behavior.
• Some people engage in atypical behavior without distress.
• Perpetrators of serious crimes may experience little distress.
• Someone with antisocial personality disorder manipulates and breaks the law without guilt or anxiety.

Maladaptive Behavior

• Adaptive behavior enables individuals to adjust appropriately and effectively to their environment.
• Involves actions that enable a person to carry out daily life tasks and meet their responsibilities.
• The individual is able to 'adapt' to daily living demands age-appropriately and independently.
• Examples: eating dinner, brushing teeth, setting an alarm, going to school on time, greeting friends, controlling impulses.
• Adaptive behavior is generally positive, constructive, and age-appropriate within the individual's socio-cultural environment.
• Maladaptive behavior: Detrimental, counterproductive, interferes with adjustment and fulfilling societal roles.
• Impairs a person’s ability to perform usual tasks and cope with daily life challenges.
• Reduced ability to practice personal hygiene, sleep well, eat, make decisions, learn, go to work, and maintain relationships.
• Most people have engaged in maladaptive behavior at some point.
• Maladaptive behavior tends to violate social and cultural norms.
• Statistically less common and often causes personal distress due to its disruptive effects.
• Considered atypical and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
• Considering maladaptive behavior helps mental health professionals identify individuals needing support.
• Behavior from phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder can hinder basic tasks.
• Phobias can stop someone from going to school or work, shopping, etc.
• Repeated hand washing is maladaptive if it interferes with the ability to get on with everyday living.
• Mental health professionals have expertise in assessing maladaptive behavior, but the public may have differing views.
• These views may vary in relation to different social norms across cultures.
• Some maladaptive behavior may be categorized as typical when viewed from a statistical perspective.
• Talking on a hand-held mobile phone while driving is maladaptive but common
• Maladaptive behaviors may alleviate distress despite being atypical.
• Hand washing may be calming for those with obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• Responding to messages from aliens may be enjoyable for someone with schizophrenia.
• No perspective is fully satisfactory for distinguishing typical and atypical behavior.
• Judgments of behavior should be based on a combination of standards from different perspectives.

3.3 Concepts of Normality and Neurotypicality

• No universally accepted single definition of normality in psychology.
• Varies considerably depending on the perspective adopted.
• Psychologists tend to avoid defining it.
• Instead, they focus on the concept, or 'idea', of normality, how it can be recognized, and key characteristics for doing so.
• Broad concept, most commonly used in relation to mental health and wellbeing.
• May be considered roughly the equivalent of good mental health.
• Psychological and behavioral characteristics help to recognize normality.
• Refer to ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that indicate a person can perform everyday tasks at the level required to fulfill roles in society.
• Characteristics include:
  • Freedom from disabling thoughts
  • Capacity to think and act effectively
  • Freedom from disabling feelings
  • Freedom from extreme emotional distress
  • Ability to cope with life demands
  • Absence of mental health disorder symptoms
• These traits are not rigid benchmarks, nor are they presented in order of importance.
• Flexible, considering variety in cultures.
• Provides a basis for identifying adaptive or maladaptive actions.
• Foundation for describing abnormality: Deviation from what is considered normal, typical, usual, or healthy.
• Useful for diagnosing and treating developmental and mental health disorders, but care is taken when using the term abnormality (and abnormal).
• Appropriate when used in a medical or scientific context such as 'an abnormality of the brain', 'an abnormal test result' or 'an abnormal distribution of scores'
• Derogatory and not appropriate when describing a person.
• Use depends on what is being considered and the perspective being made.
• Abnormality in relation to mental health may be maladaptive.
• Dedicating one’s life to living among impoverished people to help them would be abnormal from a statistical perspective but would be praised.
• Neurotypicality means being neurologically typical.
• Used to describe people whose neurological development and cognitive functioning are typical.
• Brain and its functioning are like that of a typical, 'average' person.
• Skills associated with perception, learning, memory, understanding, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intuition, and language fall within the range of normal experience.
• Variations can occur but remain typical like those experienced by most.
• Skills and behaviors are also commonly expected in associated cognitive, emotional and social development.
• Emotions align with common expectations.
• Social skills enables interactions with people of different ages and backgrounds, forming close interpersonal relationships, participating in community activities, and so on.
• Behaviors are likely adaptive rather than maladaptive.

3.4 Neurodiversity — Normal Variations of Brain Development within Society

• Describes people whose neurological development/cognitive functioning are atypical, deviating from what is considered typical/normal.
• Range of differences among neurodivergent individuals is part of normal variation of brain development in any group or society.
• Neurodiversity occurs when one or more members differ substantially in neurological development/cognitive functioning.
• Families, friendship groups, psychology classes, schools, suburbs, casts of characters in tv shows.
• Individuals with intellectual disability (limitations in cognitive abilities & skills for functioning independently) may be described as neurodivergent.
• Like any form of neurodivergence, intellectual disability may vary in severity, within & between individuals.
• Every individual has unique characteristics/strengths.
• Neurodiversity recognizes the similarities/differences in the abilities of individuals with neurological disorders.
• Many neurological disorders are disabilities, but they also represent normal human variation in the cognitive functioning within our society.
• All forms of neurological diversity should be respected as differences in how people think, see the world & process information.
• Viewed as natural and valuable human diversity, like differences in biological sex, ethnicity, eye color, hair color.
• Terms associated with neurotypicality and neurodiversity also involves appropriate/inappropriate are used.
• Neurotypical can be either an adjective to describe someone (e.g. ‘He’s neurotypical’) or a noun (e.g. ‘She’s a neurotypical’).
• No such person as a 'neurodiverse individual'.
• Correct term is 'neurodivergent individual'.
• Individual can diverge/deviate from normal/typical, but an individual cannot be diverse.
• Neurodiverse cannot be used to mean 'non-neurotypical', because neurotypical people are part of the spectrum of human neurodiversity.
• Neurotypical/neurodiverse do not describe an ability, set of abilities, personality or a personality trait.
• Neurotypical or neurodiversity are not derogatory when used to describe a person.
• Neurodivergence is an umbrella term that covers all psychological disorders with some neurological disturbance due to hereditary/environmental influences, or both.
• May be largely/entirely inherited or produced through experience that changes brain functioning, such as a brain injury from an accident, by misuse of an illegal drug, or lifestyle factors.
• Autism, ADHD & dyslexia are three of many forms of neurodivergence.
• Each condition should be viewed as neurological disorder involving normal variations in brain development.
• Individuals diagnosed with one of these conditions are not 'all the same' and don’t necessarily 'all need fixing'.
• They all have brains that are 'wired differently', just like neurotypicals.
• Brain functioning alters how they think, feel & behave uniquely.
• Experience many of the same symptoms.
• Retain their individuality, and will have many positive attributes.
• May also have attributes that are strengths which neurotypicals lack.
• A person diagnosed with autism who has an exceptional ability like a prodigious memory for facts, may prefer respect for the ability rather than treatment for their autism.

3.4.1 Autism

• Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting communication/interaction with others and the world.
• Diagnosed when a person displays behavior involving persistent difficulties interacting/communicating with others.
• Also, highly restricted/repetitive behaviors, interests & activities than typically expected.
• May be accompanied by reactions to sensory stimuli, like over or under- sensitivity to lighting, sounds, tastes, smells, or touch.
• Being a neurodevelopmental disorder means autism has a neurological basis (brain/nervous system) and onset occurs during development.
• Develops before birth, but difficulties apparent in early childhood, and may be reliably diagnosed by age 18 months–2 years.
• Not just a childhood condition; it is a lifelong and will almost always be present in some form throughout the entire life span.
• Predominantly diagnosed in childhood with some reaching adulthood without diagnosis.
• No specific medical procedure for diagnosing autism.
• Behaviors are abilities across a broad range of areas considered.
• Mental health professionals use detailed parent interviews.
• Behavioral observations and developmental assessments to establish an understanding of the child’s behavior patterns.
• Profile is then compared with evidence-based criteria and formally recognized by mental health professionals for a diagnosis of autism.
• Medical evaluation included as part of the assessment to rule out medical causes for behaviors/other characteristics of concern.
• Characteristics for diagnosis fall into three broad categories.
  • Social interaction
  • Social communication
  • Restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

Social interaction

• Difficulties with social interaction in autistic individuals.
• Little/no response to social interaction from others.
• Little/no initiation of social interaction, or sharing of emotions.
• Hard to form ‘normal’ social relationships.
• Difficulty adjusting behavior to suit different social contexts.
• Many autistic infants do not demonstrate typical behaviors with a secure attachment.
• Make very little eye contact with people.
• Don't tend to respond by snuggling when held.
• Seldom seek comfort from a caregiver when distressed.
• Difficulty showing affection but this doesn’t mean a lack of interest in being affectionate.
• May be oversensitive to touch or hugs, or not understanding the hug's reason.
• Children likely to have difficulty making Friends by spending time alone in the school playground at recess and lunchtime.
• Show little/no interest in others and often don't respond when someone calls their name.
• Response in a social situation often inappropriate.
• Children unlikely to engage in pretend/interactive play and prefer a small range of toys being used in same way.
• Unlikely to share enjoyment with showing things to another person.

Social communication

• Social communication problems also being evident in many autistic individuals.
• Problems compounded by: Delayed speech development.
• Limited language skills.
• Limited range of facial expressions.
• Facial expressions, gestures, and body movements are often not integrated/don't match conversation.
• Difficulties with everyday conversation back-and-forth are common.
• Seem to have no understanding of the 'social rules' of listening and then talking.
• Fail to respond/slow to respond to someone calling name and other verbal attempts.
• Difficulty understanding the other person’s point of view/actions.
• Tone of speech may be unusual by being mechanical and monotone with little variation.
• Language may be unusual to express needs/wants.
• Repeating or echoing words/phrases that someone else has said.

Restricted or repetitive behavior, interests, and activities

• Includes behavior with limitations, such as fixation on certain activities, sameness & rigid routines along with hypersensitivity to sensory input.
• Spend long periods of time repeating simple movements (Hand flapping or rocking back and forth).
• Spend a lot of time repeating things like spinning a coin, arranging objects so they are in a straight line.
• Excessively like routine and need sameness along with resisting to change.
• Becomes upset/distressed by a slight change in a routine.
• Can become strongly attached to particular objects and some develop a preoccupation with moving objects/parts (hands and fingers).
• Some spend time intently watching things by movement. (hands and fingers)

Autism spectrum disorder

• Wide variation in the type and severity of characteristics is the reason why autism is known to be a ‘spectrum’ disorder.
• Includes 2: Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder.
• Estimates suggest 1 and 100 having it and being more common to males by 4%
• Individual/Personal experiences will very with each person.
• Commonality with those with autism have language that will very depending on who they are around and what their background is.

Risks and contributing factors

• Research shows that multiple different changes in the development of the brain may result in such things as biological changes or chemical changes.
• Interactions of several genes involved in brain development/ Chromosomal conditions.
• Inheritance can be correlated with parents having a 20% risk of the child also having it.

Factors include

• Individual differences for the person.
• Whether they have something with the spectrum like an intellectual disability.
• School Environment.
• Timing.
• Etc.

3.4.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• ADHD is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder
• Classified as an ongoing and continuous thing.
• Behavior includes being inattentive, hyperactive, and or impulsive. This will affect their everyday lifestyle.

ADHD Categories

• Inattention
• Hyperactivity
• Impulsivity

ADHD Types

• In the individual, three types include.
  • Being predominantly inattentive.
  • Predominantly hyperactive with impulsivity.
  • And lastly having a mix with both.

ADHD Contributing factored factors

• Those affected interact with hereditary and environmental risk. Specific factors will vary as well.
• Inheritance has a significant role that varies based on how the brain has developed.
• Research also says genetics can account for something like 70%!

Not Supported Through Science

• Extra Sugar intake.
• Food Additives.
• Excessive screen time.
• Poor Child management.

3.4.3 Learning Disabilities

• Disability is an impairment that can be a mental, physical, or a common of both.
• Can be at birth or at any other time in life.
• Disability can be acquired at birth at any time in life.
• Impairs learning and results in them learning with a greater difficulty than one without the disorder.

Learning Disability versus Learning Difficulty.

• Psychologists, however, tend to distinguish them. Those with difficulty have the ability to reach their potential by receiving proper support and instruction.
• Learning disability can impair mental and physical.
• A learning disability can effect knowledge which consist with everyday life.

The main learning disabilities consist of

• Dyslexia (affects reading and writing).
• Dyscalculia (affects math).
• Dyspraxia (affect coordinating movement).

Dyslexia Information

• Is a learning difficulty classified by hard time processing letters to a letter’s pronunciation.
• Have troubles distinguishing sounds.
• Trouble learning the names of letter and reading.
• This does not mean they lack intelligence to learn.
• Can be tested and proven through imaging and a number of research projects.

Dyscalculia Information

• Difficulty in mathematical concepts where numbers will be jumbled, and number patterns are hard to process.
• Issues include
  • Understanding time.
  • Understanding concepts.
  • Mathematical formulas.
• No real cause in developmental dyscalculia

Dyspraxia Information

• Has those with the condition having a hard time coordinating certain physical movements
• Having trouble with self-care things for oneselves.
• There are a wide arrange of options of help to those that improve coordination with verbal skills.

3.5 Supporting Psychological Development and Mental Wellbeing

• Mental health professionals/organizations involved.
• psychologists, psychiatrists and various organizations employing mental health professionals/other mental health workers.
• Psychologists/psychiatrists best-known/most qualified mental health professionals, they have skills/knowledge, and roles may overlap.
• Some deal with all problems; others specialize.
• Some works relatively independently, others works as team.
• Many take on different roles.
• Psychologist is professional trained in the science of how people think, feel & behave, they can use the title if registered as a psychologist. Registration and regulation helps ensure qualifications/skills.
• Registered psychologists must have completed a minimum of six years of training and supervised experience and to engage in ongoing education to keep their skills and knowledge up to date.
• Shows trainings people need over in Australia.
• Many complete an additional 2 to becoming experts.
• Psychiatrist is qualified medical doctor who has furthered and qualified to become expert with mental illness.
• Involves at least 11 years of study, usually more.
• Psychiatrists focus and treat people.
• Some complete additional training to assess ND and also LD.
• Can provide range of treatments, according to problem what will best assist and help.
• Must be referral from doctor see a psychiatrist.
• Psychologists likely to see people with conditions helped with psychological treatments, these might include ADD, EDD, and BPD.
• Can assess/diagnose mental health disorders, not medical doctors; cannot prescribe.
• No referral for psychologist.
• Psychologists/psychiatrists often work together
• May also work together with other organ. part of health multi, team.

3.5.2 Other Mental Health workers

• Tends and needs mental health in nursing counsel's & support works.
• Also a big part can come into the Administrative work.
• Help support other mental health workers who will help in care.
• The family doc is very key first for psychological or concern.
• Doctor must use the appropriate steps into understanding that an underlying neurological concern occurs to help the person.
• Some GPS have extra help that can help in a mental health way.

3.5.3 Organizations

• A lot of organ. in V that offer mental health supportive services.
• These can be paid via private and free through NON-profit organizations
• Some commonly used organizations include Headspace, Kids helpline, and beyond blue to mention a few.
• Those services help with access, info, and advice from professionals to support a person and the problems they have.

3.5.4 Assessment of psychological development and atypical behaviour

• Assessment: collecting and interpreting information on how one makes a diagnosis for treat.
• May need info about a person, about and other relevance to current life.
• Overall biol, psych and social factors.
• Process mostly happens in appoints with the profession.
• Biological/Psychology, social aspects are all considered!

Steps During a Clinical Assessment

• Interview with an expert.
• In office Behavior assessments will be conducted.
• Tests of the psyche such as a psychological scale (the test)
• Systematic procedures for interview/ observations and testing.
• First Step: To get a F2F with said person to explore their emotions from past/present.

Ways to observe for significant notes include

• The tone in how questions answered.
• Eyes contact and expression.
• How they appear in cleaniness and other dress modes.
  Psychological tests are a great source of information where they are tests/scales for valid, and variety use.

3.5.5 Classifying and Categorising Behaviour for Diagnosis

• All sciences classify disorders or types of disorders depending on what a person is experiencing.
• Symptoms that are frequently reoccurring can be considered a part of a specific disorder.
• A diagnosis is a way to see what are the symptoms/signs of ones self and from this point be put into a section or disorder. this provides clarity too ones self of their own behavior