Biological Level of Analysis (BLOA)

Neurotransmission

Key Term: Neurotransmitters

Definition: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Example: Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin

Research: Sperry (1968) - Split-Brain Research

Method: Studied patients who had undergone surgery to sever the corpus callosum.

Findings: Demonstrated that the two hemispheres of the brain have different functions and can operate independently.

Localization of Function in the Brain

Key Term: Phineas Gage

Definition: A case study that demonstrated the link between frontal lobe damage and changes in personality and behavior.

Example: Gage's personality changes after a railroad accident that damaged his frontal lobe.

Research: Broca (1861) - Broca's Area

Method: Studied patients with language impairments after brain damage.

Findings: Identified Broca's area in the frontal lobe, which is involved in speech production.

Plasticity of the Brain

Key Term: Neuroplasticity

Definition: The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

Example: Recovery of function after brain injury.

Research: Maguire et al. (2000) - Taxi Drivers' Hippocampus

Method: MRI scans of London taxi drivers.

Findings: Found that the posterior hippocampus was larger in taxi drivers compared to control subjects, suggesting that experience can lead to changes in brain structure.

Hormones and Behavior

Key Term: Cortisol

Definition: A stress hormone produced by the adrenal cortex.

Example: Increased cortisol levels in response to stress.

Research: Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) - Exam Stress and Immune Function

Method: Studied medical students before and after exams.

Findings: Found that immune function was reduced during exams, suggesting a link between stress and immune function.

Cognitive Level of Analysis (CLOA)

Cognitive Processes

Key Term: Encoding

Definition: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Example: Encoding the meaning of a word by relating it to personal experiences.

Research: Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Eyewitness Testimony

Method: Participants watched a film of a car accident and were asked questions about the speed of the cars using different verbs (e.g., smashed, collided).

Findings: The verb used influenced participants' estimates of the cars' speed, demonstrating the effect of language on memory.

Memory

Key Term: Working Memory Model

Definition: A model that explains the process of short-term memory and its components.

Example: The working memory model includes the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.

Research: Baddeley and Hitch (1974) - Working Memory Model

Method: Studied the ability of participants to perform two tasks simultaneously.

Findings: Proposed the working memory model, which suggests that short-term memory is not a unitary system but consists of multiple components.

Cognitive Biases

Key Term: Confirmation Bias

Definition: The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Example: Only paying attention to information that supports your political beliefs.

Research: Tversky and Kahneman (1974) - Representativeness Heuristic

Method: Presented participants with a description of a person and asked them to judge the likelihood of the person belonging to a certain profession.

Findings: People often use stereotypes to make judgments, leading to errors in judgment.

Cultural and Gender Influences on Cognitive Processes

Key Term: Cultural Schema

Definition: Organized mental structures that represent the knowledge about aspects of the world that are relevant to a particular culture.

Example: Different cultures may have different schemas for understanding family roles.

Research: Cole and Scribner (1974) - Memory Strategies in Different Cultures

Method: Studied memory strategies in Liberian and American children.

Findings: Found that Liberian children used context-dependent memory strategies more often than American children, highlighting cultural differences in cognition.

Socio-cultural Level of Analysis (SCLA)

Social and Cultural Norms

Key Term: Social Roles

Definition: The behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status in a given society.

Example: The role of a parent includes providing care and guidance to their children.

Research: Milgram (1963) - Obedience to Authority

Method: Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to another person (actor) under the guise of a learning experiment.

Findings: Demonstrated the power of authority figures in influencing obedience, even to the point of causing harm to others.

Social Identity

Key Term: Social Identity Theory

Definition: A theory that proposes that individuals seek to improve their self-image by identifying with specific social groups.

Example: Feeling proud of being a member of a successful sports team.

Research: Tajfel et al. (1971) - Minimal Group Paradigm

Method: Participants were assigned to groups based on meaningless criteria and asked to distribute rewards.

Findings: Showed that people tend to favor their in-group over out-groups, even when the groups are arbitrarily created.

Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Key Term: Stereotype Threat

Definition: The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype.

Example: A student feeling anxious about taking a test because of stereotypes about their race.

Research: Steele and Aronson (1995) - Stereotype Threat and Performance

Method: African American and European American participants were given a difficult verbal test.

Findings: African American participants performed worse when the test was described as a measure of intellectual ability, but not when it was described as a problem-solving task, highlighting the impact of stereotype threat on performance.

Cultural Dimensions of Behavior

Key Term: Individualism vs. Collectivism

Definition: The degree to which a society emphasizes individual goals and autonomy versus group goals and solidarity.

Example: Western cultures often emphasize individualism, while Eastern cultures often emphasize collectivism.

Research: Markus and Kitayama (1991) - Cultural Influences on Self-Concept

Method: Compared self-concepts of American and Japanese participants.

Findings: Found that Americans tend to have more independent self-concepts, while Japanese tend to have more interdependent self-concepts, reflecting cultural differences in self-construal.

Random Sampling

Definition: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

Example: Using a random number generator to select participants from a list of all university students.

Stratified Sampling

Definition: The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic relevant to the study, and then samples are randomly selected from each subgroup.

Example: Dividing a population of students into subgroups based on grade level and then randomly selecting students from each grade.

Cluster Sampling

Definition: The population is divided into clusters, usually based on geographical location, and then clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.

Example: Randomly selecting several schools from a list of all schools in a region, and then sampling all students from the selected schools.

Systematic Sampling

Definition: Selecting every nth member of the population to be included in the sample, where n is determined by dividing the population size by the desired sample size.

Example: Selecting every 10th student from a list of all students in a school.

Convenience Sampling

Definition: Selecting participants who are readily available and accessible to the researcher.

Example: Surveying people passing by on the street.

Snowball Sampling

Definition: Participants are asked to recruit other participants from among their acquaintances.

Example: Studying the prevalence of a rare disease by asking individuals diagnosed with the disease to refer other affected individuals.

Purposive Sampling

Definition: Selecting participants based on specific characteristics that are relevant to the study.

Example: Selecting only high-achieving students for a study on study habits.

Quota Sampling

Definition: The researcher divides the population into groups based on specified characteristics and then sets a quota for the number of participants to be selected from each group.

Example: Selecting a certain number of males and females from different age groups to ensure representation of different demographics.

Informed Consent

Definition: Participants should be fully informed about the nature of the study and any potential risks or benefits before agreeing to participate.

Example: Providing participants with a detailed information sheet and obtaining their signed consent before starting the study.

Voluntary Participation

Definition: Participants should participate in a study voluntarily, without any form of coercion.

Example: Ensuring that participants are free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Protection from Harm

Definition: Researchers should take measures to protect participants from physical or psychological harm.

Example: Providing debriefing sessions after the study to address any negative feelings or emotions that may have arisen.

Confidentiality

Definition: Researchers should protect the privacy of participants and keep all information confidential.

Example: Using anonymous codes to identify participants instead of using their names in research reports.

Debriefing

Definition: Researchers should provide participants with a full explanation of the study after it is completed, including its purpose and any deception that was used.

Example: Explaining the true nature of a study involving deception and addressing any misconceptions or concerns that participants may have.

Deception

Definition: Researchers should avoid the use of deception in studies, but if it is necessary, they should debrief participants afterward to explain the reasons for the deception.

Example: Telling participants in a study on bystander intervention that they are watching a video on social interactions, when in fact the study is about helping behavior.

Right to Withdraw

Definition: Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Example: Including a statement in the informed consent form that participants can withdraw from the study at any time by notifying the researcher.

Purpose of Research

Definition: The use of animals in psychology research is often aimed at understanding fundamental biological and behavioral processes that may be applicable to humans.

Example: Studying the effects of stress on behavior in rats to better understand human stress responses.

Techniques Used

Definition: Researchers may use a variety of techniques when working with animals, including behavioral observation, surgery, drug administration, and genetic manipulation.

Example: Using a maze to study learning and memory in mice.

Ethical Considerations

Definition: The use of animals in research raises ethical concerns, including ensuring their welfare, minimizing pain and distress, and using them only when no alternative methods are available.

Example: Providing animals with proper housing, food, and veterinary care to ensure their well-being.

Alternatives to Animal Research

Definition: Researchers are encouraged to use alternative methods, such as computer simulations, cell cultures, and human studies, whenever possible to reduce the use of animals.

Example: Using computer models to study the effects of drugs on brain function before conducting animal studies.

Regulations and Oversight

Definition: Animal research is subject to strict regulations and oversight by ethics committees and government agencies to ensure that it is conducted in an ethical and humane manner.

Example: Obtaining approval from an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) before conducting any research involving animals.

Reporting and Transparency

Definition: Researchers are required to report their methods and results accurately and transparently to ensure that the scientific community can evaluate the ethical implications of their work.

Example: Publishing research findings in peer-reviewed journals and providing detailed descriptions of the methods used.

Continual Evaluation and Improvement

Definition: Researchers should continually evaluate their methods and practices to identify ways to reduce the use of animals, minimize pain and distress, and improve the welfare of animals used in research.

Example: Implementing new techniques or technologies that allow for more precise and humane research methods.

Naturalistic Observation

Main Idea: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without attempting to manipulate or control the situation.

Definition: Naturalistic observation is a research method in which behavior is studied in its natural environment without interference from the researcher.

Case Study

Main Idea: Intensive study of a single individual or small group to reveal underlying behavioral principles.

Definition: A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group to understand their behavior and psychological processes.

Survey

Main Idea: Obtaining self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Definition: A survey is a research method that involves asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through interviews or questionnaires.

Correlational Research

Main Idea: Examining the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated or correlated.

Definition: Correlational research is a method that examines how variables are related to each other, but does not establish causation.

Experimental Research

Main Idea: Manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on another factor (dependent variable) while controlling other variables.

Definition: Experimental research is a method in which researchers manipulate variables to determine their effect on behavior or mental processes.

Longitudinal Study

Main Idea: Studying the same group of individuals over an extended period to track changes or development.

Definition: A longitudinal study is a research method that follows the same group of individuals over a long period to observe changes or stability in behavior or characteristics.

Cross-Sectional Study

Main Idea: Comparing groups of individuals of different ages at the same time to study age-related changes.

Definition: A cross-sectional study is a research method that compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time to examine age-related differences or trends.

Validity

Definition: The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Example: A study has high validity if it accurately measures the concept it intends to measure.

Reliability

Definition: The consistency or repeatability of a research study or measuring test.

Example: A reliable scale consistently measures weight the same way each time it is used.

Hypothesis

Definition: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Example: "Students who study with music will perform worse on a memory test than students who study in silence."

Independent Variable

Definition: The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.

Example: In a study investigating the effects of sleep on memory, sleep would be the independent variable.

Dependent Variable

Definition: The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment.

Example: In the same study, memory performance would be the dependent variable.

Control Group

Definition: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being studied.

Example: In a drug trial, the control group receives a placebo instead of the actual drug.

Experimental Group

Definition: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being studied.

Example: In the same drug trial, the experimental group receives the actual drug.

Psychological Process Vocabulary:

Cognition

Definition: The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Example: Memory, attention, and problem-solving are all aspects of cognition.

Emotion

Definition: A complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes.

Example: Happiness, sadness, fear, and anger are all emotions.

Perception

Definition: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make sense of the world.

Example: Recognizing a friend's face in a crowd is an example of visual perception.

Development

Definition: The process of growth and change over time, including physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Example: Developmental psychology studies how children's thinking and behavior change as they grow.

Motivation

Definition: The reason or reasons behind an individual's actions, desires, and needs.

Example: Hunger motivates a person to eat, while thirst motivates them to drink.

Learning

Definition: The process of acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences.

Example: Learning to ride a bike involves acquiring the knowledge and skills needed to balance and pedal.

Personality

Definition: The unique set of characteristics, traits, and behaviors that define an individual's distinctive patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Example: Introversion and extroversion are personality traits that describe how outgoing or reserved a person is.