Chapter 11 Study Guide BIOS 1030

Define the term pathogen.

pathogen - an organism that causes disease, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites

pathogens can be eukaryotes (e.g., fungi, protozoa) or prokaryotes (e.g., bacteria)

Provide 4 examples of living pathogens, and 2 examples of non-cellular pathogens?

Which can be treated with antibiotics?

antibiotics are effective against bacterial diseases such as pneumonia, strep throat, food poisoning (Salmonella, E. coli), gonorrhea, and chlamydia

antibiotics do not work on viral infections like the flu, the common cold, or chickenpox

Be able to provide examples of diseases caused by all 6 types of pathogens.

What does an antibiotic target in bacterium?

Why are antifungal medications harder to development and typically take longer to act than antibiotics?

If you let your blood settle in a test tube – describe the look and composition of the 3 layers you would observe.

plasma (top layer) - the liquid part of blood, consisting of water, proteins, hormones, sugars, fats, and vitamins

buffy coat (middle layer) - a thin layer containing white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets, responsible for immune response and clotting, respectively

red blood cells (RBCs, bottom layer) - these cells, responsible for carrying oxygen, settle at the bottom due to their density

What is the general function of a white blood cell?

key players in the immune response, providing protection against illness and disease

Name and describe the function and relative abundance of the five major groups of white blood cells.

Which of these cells are granulocytes?

white blood cells, include neutrophils (60-70%, first responders), eosinophils (1-4%, attack large parasites), and basophils (~1%, secrete heparin and histamine)

Which are agranulocytes?

white blood cells, include lymphocytes (20-40%, involved in immune memory and antibody production) and monocytes (3-10%, phagocytize pathogens)

What is an antigen?

antigen - substances recognized as foreign by the immune system, stimulating an immune response

What is an antibody?

proteins produced by B cells in response to antigens, binding specifically t them to neutralize or mark them for destruction

What is the general form of an antibody?

Not including activation of the complement system, when an antibody/antigen complex forms what is the effect on the bacteria/virus?

1. Be able to describe the function and location of the main elements of the lymphatic system:

(lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes).

2. Compare and contrast innate and adaptive immunity.

3. Provide examples of mechanical barriers and chemical barriers.

Explain how fever, inflammation, and phagocytes are involved in your innate (nonspecific) immune response.

fever - increases phagocyte activity and creates an inhospitable environment for pathogens

inflammation - triggered by histamine (from basophils), increases blood flow to bring immune cells to the infection site

phagocytes - engulf and destroy pathogens as part of the body's first line of defense.

Which cells are involved in the adaptive (specific) immune response?

B cells - produce antibodies to target pathogens.

T cells - attack infected cells directly or help coordinate the immune response.

What happens after a B cell is activated?

plasma cells - produce large amounts of antibodies.

memory B cells - provide long-term immunity by recognizing the pathogen in future encounters.

What happens after a T cell is activated?

cytotoxic T cells - destroy infected cells by releasing toxins.

memory T cells - provide faster, stronger responses upon future exposure to the pathogen.

Describe the function of plasma and memory B cells.

plasma B cells - produce antibodies to neutralize or mark pathogens for destruction.

memory B cells - remain in the body to quickly respond if the same pathogen is encountered again.

Describe the function of cytotoxic and memory T cells.

cytotoxic T cells - directly destroy infected cells.

memory T cells - provide a quicker immune response during future exposures.

Compare and contrast the primary and secondary immune responses.

primary response- first exposure to a pathogen, slower response, formation of memory cells

secondary response - faster and stronger response upon re-exposure due to memory cells, often prevents symptoms

How does a vaccine work?

a vaccine introduces a weakened/inactivated pathogen or its antigens to stimulate the immune system

it creates memory B cells and memory T cells, which provide a quick secondary immune response when exposed to the actual pathogen

Chapter 10 Study Guide BIOS 1030

Why can one hormone cause many different changes in your body? (Use Adrenaline as an example!)

6. What are the three steps to signal transduction? In what three ways are hormone levels controlled through negative feedback mechanisms?

How does your pancreas help regulate your blood sugar level?

How/Why is this an example of a humeral negative feedback mechanism?

Chapter 9 Study Guide BIOS 1030

As blood leaves and returns to the heart, be able to put the following terms in order, starting with the heart: heart, capillaries, arteries, veins, arterioles, venules.

5. Are capillaries made up of the same four layers that arteries and veins are made up of? How does this change in composition aid in the function of a capillary?

As material is exchanged between the capillaries and the surrounding tissue, why do most RBCs and Proteins stay in the capillaries?

Why do oxygen molecules and nutrients move out of the capillaries and stay in the tissue cells?

What mechanisms help blood move through veins back to the heart?

8. Describe the follow of blood through the heart starting with the right atrium, using the following words: Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle, lungs (pulmonary circuit), rest of body (systemic circuit), pulmonary semilunar valve, aortic semilunar valve, right atrioventricular valve, left atrioventricular valve.

9. Describe the variation in thickness of ventricles and atria. How do these differences reflect the different functions of atria and ventricles?

10. “Some babies are born with a heart defect in which ventricles are connected to the wrong arteries – that is, the right ventricle sends blood to the aorta, and the left ventricle sends blood to the pulmonary trunk. What is the problem with this arrangement?

11. What is systole? Diastole?

12. Be able to describe if atria and ventricles are in systole or diastole during the three steps of the cardiac cycle: (1) Rest, (2)Atrium contraction, (3)Ventricle contraction.

13. Be able to describe if atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves are open or closed during the three steps of the cardiac cycle.

14. What initiates each heart beat to pump blood around the body and acts as the pacemaker?

15. What is an ECG? Given an ECG can you pick out the atrial contraction? Ventricular contraction?

A normal ECG versus a ECG showing atrial or ventricular fibrillation?

16. Explain how blood pressure is measured? If your blood pressure is 119/65 mm HG, which number is the diastolic pressure? Systolic pressure? Would 119/65 be considered a “normal” or “healthy” blood pressure?

17. What is hypertension?

18. How is an aneurysm different as compared to a stroke?

19. How can obstructions of the coronary arteries be resolved?

20. Be able to recognize risk factors for developing cardiovascular diseases.

21. How does exercise lower your risk for developing cardiovascular diseases?18. How is an aneurysm different as compared to a stroke?

19. How can obstructions of the coronary arteries be resolved?

20. Be able to recognize risk factors for developing cardiovascular diseases.

21. How does exercise lower your risk for developing cardiovascular diseases

Study Guide: Chapter 8 – Skeletal System

Lecture 1

What is a Ligament? Tendon? Cartilage?

Ligament - bone to bone

Tendon - muscle to bone

Cartilage - cushion between bones

Define proximal.

Proximal - closer to the trunk of the body

Define distal.

Distal - farther from the trunk of the body

7. Describe and locate the following in a long bone: diaphysis, epiphysis (proximal and distal), compact bone, spongy bone, epiphyseal plate (growth plate), cartilage, yellow and red marrow.

8. What is the function of yellow bone marrow? Red bone marrow?

9. Given an osteon, be able to identify the location of an osteocyte, the central canal, bone matrix and canaliculi.

10. Describe how nutrients are transported from the central canal to the osteocytes on the periphery of the osteon.

12. How can ossification of epiphyseal plates aid an investigation that involves skeletal remains?

13. Whys is exercising good for your bones?

14. If blood calcium is low, parathyroid hormone is secreted in response. This hormone increases the activity of which bone cell? Is this an example of a negative or positive feedback mechanism?

15. Be able to discuss the symptoms and causes of the following conditions that involve the skeletal system: osteoporosis, arthritis.

17. In the skull, why are the facial bones so much lighter than the cranium?

19. Name and define the three types of joints. How does these joints differ in degree of motion?

20. What are the 3 parts of a synovial joint?

Muscular System

Lecture 1

1. Review the 3 main types of muscle tissues. Compare these three types of muscle tissue concerning: location, function, voluntary/involuntary control, cell appearance, striations, number of nuclei.

2. What are tendons? Aponeuroses? Fascia?

3. Be able to describe briefly the structure of a muscle from large to smaller structures: muscle, fascicles, muscle fiber (muscle cell), myofibrils, sarcomeres, myofilaments (actin and myosin).

4. What is the contractile unit of a muscle?

5. What two proteins filaments are sarcomeres made up of? Which protein in a sarcomere has heads on it that can be used for attachment (think golf clubs)?

6. Be able to explain the sliding filament model of muscle contraction starting with a nerve impulse.

7. What is the role of acetylcholine in muscle contraction? Calcium? ATP?

8. In the sliding filament model of muscle contraction (this is how we discussed the interaction of myosin and actin) do any filaments actually shorten?

9. Why does rigor mortis occur?

10. Explain why muscle relaxation occurs.

11. Where does the energy/ATP come from that is used during muscle contraction/relaxation?

12. What is a muscle twitch? Describe the three phases of a muscle twitch.

13. What is the difference between fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers?

14. Which muscle fiber type is used for endurance and why? Which is used for quick bursts of energy and why?

15. Be able to compare and contrast muscles fibers for the following: function; type of respiration mainly used, rate of ATP breakdown (use), rate of fatigue.

16. What gives slow-twitch fibers their darker color?

17. Why do fast twitch muscles burn after prolonged, targeted exercise?

18. In a chicken, which type of muscle/meat is regularly used to maintain posture? Does this type of meat contain comparatively more or less fat reserves? Why?

19. Although not good for anyone, which type of athlete would benefit most from taking EPO and why?

20. Even after an athlete stops using steroids, why could they still have an unfair competitive advantage for months or even years? (Make sure to read the article linked in the last powerpoint slide of this lecture).

Chapter 7: Tissues

Define tissue.

groups of specialized cells similar in structure and function

Why are tissues necessary in multicellular animals?

Why is epithelial tissue often very smooth?

What common function do many stratified epithelia perform?

How does the anatomy of stratified epithelia fit the function performed?

Whether simple or stratified, what is a common function of columnar tissue?

Name the 4 types of fibrous connective tissue. Be able to describe the extracellular matrix of these 4 tissue types and how their composition varies in regard to 3 different types of fibers (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers).

10. Define organ and provide examples.

11. Define organ system and provide examples.

Chapter 7 Integumentary System

5. Why are the top layers of skin cells dead (aka how does this happen)

Chapter 6 Study Guide

1. What is the overall chemical equation of cellular respiration? What are the products? Re-actants?

2. What is the energy currency of a cell? What is the high-energy form? Low energy form?

3. Why do you breathe so hard when you exercise?

4. What are the 3 major steps we studied in cellular respiration?* (Different/Modified from Book)

5. During which step of cellular respiration is the majority of ATP produced?

6. GLYCOLYSIS – Where does this process occur? Which molecule is initially broken down in the process of glycolysis? Describe the two general phases of glycolysis. Which molecule is the end product of the glycolysis reactions (which will be processed and enterthe citric acid cycle)? Which two energy carrying molecules are produced during glycolysis?

7. What is the function of NADH and FADH2? In which steps of cellular respiration are they produced and in which step are they used?

8. CITRIC ACID CYCLE - Name the 3 important molecules we gain from the Citric Acid cycle. Where does this process occur? How many molecules of ATP are made in this process, per glucose molecule?

9. What happens when an electron moves closer to the nucleus of an atom?

10. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN - Where, inside the cell, is the electron transport system and what occurs here? Explain what happens during this step, making sure to include hydrogen ions, electron movement, creation of a chemical gradient, diffusion, ATP synthase and ATP.

11. What is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport system?

12. During Anaerobic cellular respiration, which of the three steps is performed? Which steps aren’t? What is the waste product created during anaerobic respiration in muscle cells? What is the waste product created during anaerobic respiration in yeast?