Untitled Flashcards Set

Top Tier Psychologists Philip Zimbardo ● Key Details: Conducted the Stanford prison experiment; studied the impact of situational variables on behavior. ● Key Terms: ○ Social Roles: Expected behaviors in a given situation. ○ Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups. ○ Situational vs. Dispositional Factors: Influence of environment vs. personal traits. William James ● Key Details: Father of American psychology; developed functionalism. ● Key Terms: ○ Stream of Consciousness: Continuous flow of thoughts. ○ Functionalism: Focus on mental processes and their purpose. ○ James-Lange Theory: Emotion arises from physiological responses. Phineas Gage ● Key Details: A railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury; his case provided insights into brain function. ● Key Terms: ○ Frontal Lobe: Area affected by the injury, linked to personality and decision-making. Tier 2 Psychologists Gustav Fechner ● Key Details: Founder of psychophysics; studied the relationship between physical stimuli and sensory perception. ● Key Concepts: ○ Weber-Fechner Law: Quantifies the relationship between stimulus intensity and perception. ○ Psychophysics: The study of how physical stimuli are perceived by the senses. ○ Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity required to detect a stimulus. Elizabeth Loftus ● Key Details: Renowned for her research on memory, particularly the malleability of human memory. ● Key Concepts: ○ False Memories: Memories that people believe to be true but are actually distorted or fabricated. ○ Misinformation Effect: The influence of misleading information on memory recall. ○ Eyewitness Testimony: The reliability issues surrounding eyewitness accounts in legal settings. Hermann Ebbinghaus ● Key Details: Pioneer in the study of memory and learning; known for his use of nonsense syllables. ● Key Concepts: ○ Personality Change: Result of damage leading to impulsivity and loss of social inhibitions. ○ Neuroscience: Study of the brain's impact on behavior. Solomon Asch ● Key Details: Conducted experiments on conformity using line judgment tasks. ● Key Terms: ○ Conformity: Alignment of attitudes or behaviors with group norms. ○ Group Pressure: Influence of peers on individual decisions. ○ Asch Paradigm: Method used to study conformity. B.F. Skinner ● Key Details: Pioneered behaviorism; focused on operant conditioning. ● Key Terms: ○ Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment). ○ Skinner Box: Experimental setup to study behavior. ○ Behavior Modification: Use of operant conditioning principles to change behavior. Wilhelm Wundt ● Key Details: Established the first psychology laboratory; known as the father of experimental psychology. ● Key Terms: ○ Structuralism: Focus on breaking down mental processes into their basic components. ○ Forgetting Curve: Describes the decline of memory retention over time. ○ Spacing Effect: The phenomenon where information is better retained when study sessions are spaced apart. ○ Nonsense Syllables: Meaningless three-letter combinations used to study memory. Martin Seligman ● Key Details: Known as the father of positive psychology; studied the concept of learned helplessness. ● Key Concepts: ○ Learned Helplessness: The feeling of powerlessness that arises from repeated failure. ○ Positive Psychology: Focus on strengths and what makes life fulfilling. ○ Well-Being Theory: Framework that emphasizes positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (PERMA). Wolfgang Köhler ● Key Details: A key figure in Gestalt psychology; conducted research on problem-solving in apes. ● Key Concepts: ○ Insight Learning: The sudden realization of a solution to a problem. ○ Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes understanding the whole rather than the sum of its parts. ○ Problem Solving in Animals: Demonstrated through experiments with chimpanzees. John Garcia ○ Introspection: Method of self-observation to report conscious experiences. ○ Psychophysics: Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and sensory perception. Mary Ainsworth ● Key Details: Developed the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment styles. ● Key Terms: ○ Attachment Theory: Framework for understanding relationships between children and caregivers. ○ Secure Attachment: Healthy emotional bond with caregivers. ○ Insecure Attachment: Anxious or avoidant responses to caregivers. Diana Baumrind ● Key Details: Researched parenting styles and their effects on child development. ● Key Terms: ○ Authoritative Parenting: Balanced approach with warmth and structure. ○ Authoritarian Parenting: Strict, less responsive approach. ○ Permissive Parenting: Lenient, indulgent approach with few demands. Harry Harlow ● Key Details: Conducted attachment research with rhesus monkeys. ● Key Terms: ○ Contact Comfort: Importance of physical touch and nurturing. ○ Maternal Attachment: Emotional bond between mother and child. ● Key Details: Known for his work in taste aversion learning. ● Key Concepts: ○ Conditioned Taste Aversion: Avoiding a food after a negative experience, such as illness. ○ Biological Preparedness: The idea that certain associations are easier to learn than others due to evolutionary factors. ○ Garcia Effect: The phenomenon where a specific taste is associated with nausea. Edward Titchener ● Key Details: Founder of structuralism; focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic components. ● Key Concepts: ○ Structuralism: Analysis of the structure of the mind through introspection. ○ Introspection: Self-reporting of conscious experiences. ○ Elements of Consciousness: Sensations, images, and feelings. John Locke ● Key Details: Philosopher known for his theory of the mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate). ● Key Concepts: ○ Empiricism: Knowledge comes from sensory experience. ○ Tabula Rasa: The idea that individuals are born without built-in mental content. ○ Social Contract Theory: The belief in the importance of government as a protector of natural rights. Mary W. Calkins ○ Isolation Studies: Effects of social isolation on development. Erik Erikson ● Key Details: Developed the psychosocial stages of development. ● Key Terms: ○ Identity Crisis: A period of uncertainty in personal identity. ○ Stages of Psychosocial Development: Eight stages from infancy to adulthood. ○ Trust vs. Mistrust: First stage in infancy. Sigmund Freud ● Key Details: Founder of psychoanalysis; emphasized the unconscious mind. ● Key Terms: ○ Id, Ego, Superego: Components of personality. ○ Defense Mechanisms: Strategies to cope with anxiety. ○ Oedipus Complex: A child's feelings of desire for the opposite-sex parent. Jean Piaget ● Key Details: Known for his theory of cognitive development in children. ● Key Terms: ○ Schemas: Frameworks for understanding the world. ○ Stages of Development: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational. ○ Conservation: Understanding that quantity doesn't change with appearance. Lawrence Kohlberg ● Key Details: First female president of the American Psychological Association; conducted research on memory and self-psychology. ● Key Concepts: ○ Self-Psychology: Focus on the role of the self in psychological processes. ○ Pairing Method: Technique in memory research involving paired associations. ○ Calkins' Contributions: Pioneering work in the study of memory and psychology. Dorothea Dix ● Key Details: Advocate for the mentally ill; instrumental in reforming mental health care. ● Key Concepts: ○ Mental Health Reform: Advocated for humane treatment of the mentally ill. ○ Asylum Movement: Efforts to improve conditions in mental institutions. ○ Public Awareness: Raised awareness of mental illness in society. Konrad Lorenz ● Key Details: Known for his work in ethology and imprinting in animals. ● Key Concepts: ○ Imprinting: Rapid learning process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period. ○ Ethology: Study of animal behavior in natural environments. ○ Critical Periods: Specific times when certain behaviors must occur. Max Wertheimer ● Key Details: Developed the stages of moral development. ● Key Terms: ○ Moral Development: Process of developing a sense of right and wrong. ○ Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional Levels: Stages in moral reasoning. ○ Heinz Dilemma: A moral dilemma used to assess moral reasoning. Ivan Pavlov ● Key Details: Known for classical conditioning with dogs. ● Key Terms: ○ Classical Conditioning: Learning through association between stimuli. ○ Unconditioned Response: Automatic response to a stimulus. ○ Conditioned Stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after conditioning. Edward Thorndike ● Key Details: Known for the law of effect and studies on animal behavior. ● Key Terms: ○ Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur. ○ Puzzle Box: Experimental setup for studying learning in animals. ○ Operant Conditioning: Early foundations leading to later behaviorism. Albert Bandura ● Key Details: Founder of Gestalt psychology; focused on perception and problem-solving. ● Key Concepts: ○ Gestalt Principles: Rules explaining how we perceive visual elements as unified wholes. ○ Phi Phenomenon: The perception of motion when still images are shown in rapid succession. ○ Holistic Processing: Emphasizing the importance of context in perception. Ernst Hilgard ● Key Details: Known for his research on hypnosis and the theory of the hidden observer. ● Key Concepts: ○ Hypnosis: A state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility. ○ Hidden Observer Theory: The idea that a part of the mind remains aware during hypnosis. ○ Pain Control: Research on the use of hypnosis for pain management. Edward Tolman ● Key Details: Known for his work on cognitive maps and latent learning. ● Key Concepts: ○ Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of physical locations. ○ Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is not immediately reflected in behavior. ○ Purposive Behaviorism: Focus on the purpose of behavior as influenced by goals. Julian Rotter ● Key Details: Known for social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy. ● Key Terms: ○ Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. ○ Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's capabilities to achieve goals. ○ Bobo Doll Experiment: Study on aggression and imitation. Costa and McCrae ● Key Details: Developed the Five Factor Model of personality (Big Five Personality Traits). ● Key Terms: ○ Openness: Willingness to try new things. ○ Conscientiousness: Level of organization and dependability. ○ Extraversion: Degree of sociability and enthusiasm. Stanley Milgram ● Key Details: Conducted the obedience experiments to study authority influence. ● Key Terms: ○ Obedience to Authority: Compliance with directives from authority figures. ○ Milgram Experiment: Study that revealed willingness to obey orders, even to harm others. ○ Ethical Considerations: Debates about the morality of psychological experiments. Carl Jung ● Key Details: Founded analytical psychology; introduced concepts of the collective unconscious. ● Key Terms: ● Key Details: Developed the concept of locus of control. ● Key Concepts: ○ Locus of Control: Belief about the extent to which one controls their life (internal vs. external). ○ Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes learning through observation and social interactions. ○ Expectancy Theory: Focus on expected outcomes of behavior. Hippocrates ● Key Details: Ancient Greek physician known as the "father of medicine." ● Key Concepts: ○ Four Humors: Theory that bodily fluids influence temperament and health (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile). ○ Medical Ethics: Hippocratic Oath emphasizes ethical standards in medicine. ○ Holistic Health: Emphasis on the balance of body and mind. Ray Cattell ● Key Details: Developed the 16 personality factors model. ● Key Concepts: ○ 16PF (Personality Factor Questionnaire): A tool to measure various personality traits. ○ Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence: Distinction between two types of intelligence. ○ Factor Analysis: Statistical method used to identify underlying traits. Darley and Latane ○ Archetypes: Universal symbols shared across cultures. ○ Introversion and Extraversion: Personality orientations. ○ Synchronicity: Meaningful coincidences. Carl Rogers ● Key Details: Humanistic psychologist known for client-centered therapy. ● Key Terms: ○ Unconditional Positive Regard: Acceptance without conditions. ○ Self-Concept: How one perceives themselves. ○ Congruence: Alignment between self-concept and experiences. Alfred Binet ● Key Details: Developed the first practical intelligence test (Binet-Simon scale). ● Key Terms: ○ Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A measure of intellectual ability. ○ Binet-Simon Scale: Early intelligence test for children. ○ Mental Age: The age at which an individual functions intellectually. Hans Selye ● Key Details: Known for his work on stress and the General Adaptation Syndrome. ● Key Terms: ○ General Adaptation Syndrome: The body's response to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion). ○ Eustress vs. Distress: Positive vs. negative stress. ● Key Details: Conducted research on bystander intervention and the bystander effect. ● Key Concepts: ○ Bystander Effect: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present. ○ Diffusion of Responsibility: The belief that others will take action, leading to inaction. ○ Social Influence: Effects of others on individual behavior in crisis situations. Alfred Adler ● Key Details: Founded individual psychology; emphasized the role of social influences on personality. ● Key Concepts: ○ Inferiority Complex: Feelings of inadequacy that can lead to overcompensation. ○ Striving for Superiority: The motivation to overcome challenges and achieve personal goals. ○ Social Interest: Emphasis on community and cooperation in personality development. Karen Horney ● Key Details: Pioneered feminist psychology; challenged Freud's theories on women. ● Key Concepts: ○ Neurotic Needs: Excessive desires that arise from anxiety and insecurity. ○ Basic Anxiety: Feelings of helplessness stemming from interpersonal relationships. ○ Stress: A physiological and psychological response to challenges. Gordon Allport ● Key Details: One of the first psychologists to focus on personality; developed trait theory. ● Key Terms: ○ Trait Theory: Focus on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics. ○ Cardinal Traits: Dominant traits that shape a person's behavior. ○ Central Traits: General characteristics found in varying degrees in every person. Ernst Weber ● Key Details: Known for Weber's Law in psychophysics. ● Key Terms: ○ Weber's Law: The principle that states the just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus. ○ Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimum difference required to detect a change in stimulus intensity. ○ Sensory Perception: Study of how we perceive sensory information. Robert Sternberg ● Key Details: Known for his triarchic theory of intelligence and theories on love. ● Key Terms: ○ Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. ○ Sternberg's Love Triangle: Components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. ○ Feminine Psychology: Explored the impact of gender on psychological development. Anna Freud ● Key Details: Daughter of Sigmund Freud; contributed to child psychoanalysis. ● Key Concepts: ○ Defense Mechanisms: Strategies the ego uses to protect against anxiety and conflict. ○ Child Analysis: Focus on understanding children's development and behavior. ○ Ego Psychology: Emphasis on the role of the ego in behavior and personality. Aaron Beck ● Key Details: Founder of cognitive therapy; known for his work on depression. ● Key Concepts: ○ Cognitive Therapy: Therapy focused on changing negative thought patterns. ○ Cognitive Distortions: Erroneous beliefs that contribute to emotional difficulties. ○ Beck Depression Inventory: A self-report questionnaire to assess depression severity. Albert Ellis ● Key Details: Developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). ● Key Concepts: ○ Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): Focuses on changing irrational beliefs to improve emotional well-being. ○ ABC Model: A framework for understanding emotional responses ○ Successful Intelligence: The ability to adapt to, shape, and select environments. (Activating event, Beliefs, Consequences). ○ Irrational Beliefs: Unhelpful thoughts that lead to negative emotions. Hans and Sybil Eysenck ● Key Details: Developed a model of personality based on dimensions of temperament. ● Key Concepts: ○ Eysenck Personality Inventory: Measures personality traits based on three dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. ○ Trait Theory: Focus on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics. ○ Biological Basis of Personality: Emphasized genetic influences on personality traits. Howard Gardner ● Key Details: Proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. ● Key Concepts: ○ Multiple Intelligences: The idea that intelligence is not a single entity but consists of various types (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial). ○ Educational Implications: Encourages diverse teaching strategies to cater to different intelligences. ○ Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Intelligences: Understanding oneself and others. Benjamin Whorf ● Key Details: Known for his work on linguistic relativity and the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. ● Key Concepts: ○ Linguistic Relativity: The idea that language influences thought and perception. ○ Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview. ○ Cognitive Linguistics: Study of how language interacts with cognitive processes. Noam Chomsky ● Key Details: Linguist known for his theory of universal grammar and critiques of behaviorism. ● Key Concepts: ○ Universal Grammar: The innate linguistic structure shared by all humans. ○ Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Hypothetical brain mechanism that enables language learning. ○ Critique of Behaviorism: Argued that language acquisition cannot be fully explained by conditioning. David Wechsler ● Key Details: Developed intelligence tests for adults and children (WAIS and WISC). ● Key Concepts: ○ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): Measures adult intelligence. ○ Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): Measures children's intelligence. ○ Full Scale IQ: Overall measure of intelligence derived from various subtests. Mary Cover Jones ● Key Details: Known as the mother of behavior therapy; conducted research on desensitization. ● Key Concepts: ○ Desensitization: Gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimuli to reduce anxiety. ○ Counterconditioning: Replacing a negative response to a stimulus with a positive one. ○ Little Peter Experiment: A study demonstrating the effectiveness of desensitization. Joseph Wolpe ● Key Details: Developed systematic desensitization as a treatment for phobias. ● Key Concepts: ○ Systematic Desensitization: A therapeutic technique to reduce anxiety through gradual exposure. ○ Reciprocal Inhibition: Using relaxation techniques to counteract anxiety responses. ○ Behavior Therapy: Focus on modifying maladaptive behaviors. Paul Ekman ● Key Details: Renowned for his work on emotions and facial expressions. ● Key Concepts: ○ Facial Expressions: Study of how emotions are expressed through facial movements. ○ Basic Emotions: Identified universal emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. ○ Microexpressions: Brief, involuntary facial expressions revealing true emotions. Lev Vygotsky ● Key Details: Developed social development theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ● Key Concepts: ○ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a learner can do without help and with guidance. ○ Scaffolding: Support provided to learners to help them achieve tasks within their ZPD. ○ Social Interaction: Emphasis on the role of social context in cognitive development.