APWH Study Guide

Unit 1.1

• Song rulers legitimizing power
• Confucianism- society on relations/hierarchical father-son, etc, honor parent (filial piety) - Neoconfucianim - Buddhist and Daoism - women restricted
• Imperial bureaucracy - government helps Emporer in other areas, several officials, civil service exam, best men got jobs, legit rule.
• Korea used civil service exams maybe following culture through invasion threat, japan voluntarily adopted bureaucracy, and Vietnam also invasion adopted Chinese systems but gave female rights
• Song economics - commercialization, produced more than they needed and exported goods - large iron/steele production, champa rice and other tools for agriculture - transportation, expanded grand canal and new ship things like junks.

Unit 1.2

• Dar-al-Islam
• Judaism- monotheistic
• Christianity, a messiah for Jews
• Islam - there was a great trade in these areas, empires like the Abbasid Caliphate - a golden age of Islam, and others began to rise after with Turkic people not arab- Seljuk took power from arab, mamluk took from Seljuk, Delhi sultanate. islam spread through the military, merchants, and missionaries.
• Golden age of Islam - Mathmatics achivements and house of wisdom in baghdad

Unit 1.3

• 3 main beliefs, Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism South/southeast Asia
• Hinduism - caste system to have better life later - Bakhti movement, worship on god and rejected heicrchy
• Islam become prominent in india due to the turk delhi sultanate - Sufism spiritual experience based Islam
• Budhims - more exclusive and declining
• India has some independent kingdoms but the sultinate tried to make people islamic
• Sea based Sriviaya got rich through taxes on water trade route

Unit 1.4

• State building in the Americas
• Mesoamerica - maya civilization who were highly sophistcated, decentralized collection of city states frequently at war, tributary states, human sacrifice
• Aztec - same decentralized power with a tribute system and religious goals.
• Andean - inca - power from military and had centralized beuracry and had mita system which required all people to work on state projects/military, no tribute
• North American - farming society with chiefs and hierarchical society

Unit 1.5

• state building in Africa
• Sub-Saharan, Swahili, strategic location on the ocean that had gold and ivory and imported goods from the interior
• Islam's prominent and voluntary conversion that connected then to Dar al islam, mix of bantu and arabic with conflicts amount kings
• Swahili had heirchy with merchants above commoners, no emporer for swahili states
• west/east africa, housa, gained power and wealth through trans Saharan trade middle man for interior goods going to coast states, muslim as well
• Ethopia was an outlier that was chirstain that gained power from selling salt and was still prominent on coastal trade.

Unit 1.6

• Christianity dominates, western roman fell, easter roman/byzantine kept faith, Eastern orthodox, broke politically.
• Roman catholic Christianity,
• Byantine lost territory to islams but had large influence, but ottoman took over byzantine
• Eastern orthodox kept by kievan rus, and took much from them
• In west the states were isolated with roman catholicism and had fuedalsim, a system of allegance between lord/moarchs/knights, greater had allegiance from less lords/kings, land exchanged to keep loyal
• manorialism , peasants bound to land and worked for protection- serfs
• More monarchs on the rise in europe and noble power fading.
• Jews and Muslim
• minorities still existed

Unit 1 review

• Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions
• Challenged by revolt of enslaved Turkish warriors, new Shia dynasty in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and most importantly Mongols
• Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258
• Ottoman Turks would later reunite Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in new Islamic state until 1918
• Mamluks: Egyptian group that defeated Mongols in Nazareth, helping preserve Islam in Near East
• Eurpe
• Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire
• Western Europe: collapsed entirely - Christianity remained strong
• Middle Ages: fall of Rome before Renaissance - complicated time
• Feudalism was the hierarchy system with king, nobles, vassals, serf/peasants
• Vassals, lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could divide it further - estates were called fiefs or manors
• three-field system: 3 fields for fall, spring, and empty one to replenish nutrients
• Serfs, Skilled in trades, which helped them break out of feudal mode as global trade increased - led to middle class emergence of craftsmen and merchants
• Magna Carta - reinstated the nobles, laid foundation for Parliament
• Later divided into House of Lords (nobles and clergy - legal issues) and House of Commons (knights and wealth burghers - trade and taxation)
  • Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): england occupied france, unified France, leading to England’s withdrawal
• Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married to unite Spain in a single monarchy and forced all residents to convert to Christianity - Spanish Inquisition
• Russia: taken over by Tartars (group of eastern Mongols) under Genghis Kahn in 1242 until Russian prince Ivan III expanded his power in 1400s and became czar - Ivan the Terrible became a ruthless ruler utilizing secret police in 1500s
• ASIA
• Japan isolated and samurai followed
• Rajput Kingdoms: several Hindu principalities that united to resist Muslim forces from 1191 until eventual takeover in 1527
• Japan, Relatively isolated from external influences outside Asia for many years, shogun, daimyo, lesser samurai, peasants, women had little rights

Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand

• Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade network
• Crafted the Angor Wat temple
• Africa
• Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries - travelled through Sahara Desert and reached the wealthy sub-Saharan

Hausa Kingdoms: off Niger River, series of state system kingdoms

• Islam region, achieved economic stability and religious influence though long trade (salt and leather) - notably city of Kano
• America
• Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice, Tenochtitaln, army, expansion, good trade
• Inca: mountain, expainsionist, beurocracy, language, roads/tunnels, sacrifice

Unit 2.1

• Silk roads facilitated trade/spread of culture and ideas, luxury items most
• Networks of exchange, reasons-
• Innovations in commercial practice, paper money, easier to carry, to deposit bill in one location sand withdrawal the same somewhere else, more ease and security.
• Increasing use of credit- flying money
• Banks- bills of exchange
• Transport
• Caravanserai- rest stops that provided safety from bandits and cultural exchange
• Saddles, make riding easier and have more goods
• Effect, rise in trade and new cities to stop and resupply, Kashghar around river and become a thriving center for Islamic scholarship, cultural exchange, smarkand
• Increased demand for luxury goods silk and porcelian more production, peasants spend more time producing silk and less on food, Proto-industrialization, produce more goods than pop can use and exported the rest
• Cultural diffusion and spread of new tech, also spread germs like bubonic plague.

Unit 2.2

• Khan united several mongol pastoral groups and started to take over the world, had efficient way to manage military tech and had good military like their arrows and very skilled military, other states were already declining and the mongol took the opportunity, there was also a great fear and murder.
• Pax mongolica, as it expanded there were several khanates and they were normally tolerant or other cultures Yuan dynasty (mandate of heaven)
• Trade routes prospered like the silk routes taking control of the entire route and increased infrastructure, communication (yam system and relay systems), and more friendliness with trade which made it safer
• tech/culure transfers, didnt kill smart people and sent them to diffent parts of the empire which led to medical knowlege spread, and the new ughyar script

Unit 2.3

• Indian ocean trade network expanded,
• collapse of mongol, less ease and safety of silk road travel, maritime,
• Commercial practices- buy goods on credit and money economies made routes easier to use and more widespread
• Transportation tech, magnetic compass- direction , astrolabe- location, lateen sail- wind in any direction, knowledge of monsoon winds, shipbuilding, junk/dhow- massive cargo
• Traded more common items instead of only luxury goods
• islam - facilitated trade along maratime routes.
• Effects -trading cities, swahili city states (mosques/public projects), mallacaa from the straight and had control making money from taxes, Gujrat cotton and goods and taxed as well
• Diaspora communties- chinese made places in in SE asia/ arab and persian in africa
• culture /tech tranfers- religion, culuture, tech, Zheng he 300 ships, ships had tech that were adopted in other regions and made more states prominent in trade rout

Unit 2.4

• Sand roads, transaharan
• causes - innovation in transportation tech, saddles, caravansarai, could travel comfortable, bigger loads, and shelter
• Traded gold, Kola nuts, horses, salt, each regions specialized in a good, trade
• Growth of empire, mali, converted to islam and was put into Dhar al islam, connection made mali wealthy reaching both and tax/trade
• Mana Mousa, hadj to mecca, adn moved gold into the egyptian economy and monopolized trade in the north

Unit 2.5

• Exchange of culture, ideas, tech in growth of trade routes
• Cultural- belief systems like buddhism, it also changed and mixed with doasim to reach out to china, Chan budhsim, inclusionms in Dhar al Islam was a reason for conversian, Bhantu was arabic and swahili
• Literary/art - house of wisdom with trasnlation of greek knowledge and spread of info
• Tech innovations, papermaking, moveable type led to literacy, gunpowder to use in warfare
• Effects- wealth and power of trading cities
• Hanzghous, near grand canal, more trade and urbanization
• Samarjkand and kashgar grew from trade on silk roads
• Baghdad declined, mongols sacked and the abassid ended too
• Constantinople, ottomans sacked and renamed istambul
• Interregional travel- Battuta traveled on trade routes and wrote about , Marco polo, indian ocean in chinese court writing, Magery kemp, pilgrimages to Christian holy sites and differce in regions and dictated travels.

Unit 2.6

• Environment consequences of trade routes
• Diffusion of crops, Bananas SE asia to africa and the diets were expanded and there was much population growth and allowed for migration
• Champa rice, in china from vietnam, matured quickly, harvested more than once per season, more population expolosion
• Citrus fruits, better diets from the arabs
• Plague, bubonic, Mongols made trade more extended and faster by making it safe which led to rapid eruption of disease, spread on trade routes and trade cities.

Unit review

• Towns often formed alliances with each other
• Hanseatic League (1358): trade alliance though northern Europe to drive toward nationhood, increase social mobility and flexibility
• rusades (11-14th century): military campaigns by European Christians to convert Muslims and non-Christians, combat religious questioning
• rade led to the growth of urban culture - cities usually were around trade routes
• Silk Route cities were the most populous - Baghdad, Merv, Chang’an
• Golden Horde: conquered modern-day Russia
• Kublai Khan: Genghis Kahn’s successor - ruled China
• Didn’t really have a set culture - didn’t enforce religion or way of life on conquered nations, but did make any cultural advancements
• Timur Lang: Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything - grew Islam in the nation
• Great diffusers of culture
• Mali had a lot of gold that Islamic traders were interested in
• Mansa Musa: Malian ruler who built the capital of Timbuktu and expended the kingdom beyond Ghana, Mana Mousa, hadj to mecca, adn moved gold into the egyptian economy and monopolized trade in the north
• Sonni Ali: Songhai ruler that conquered region of west Africa in 15th century - became a major cultural centre until 1600
• Song Dynasty: bureaucratic system built on merit and civil service examination creating a lot of loyal government workers, improved transportation and communication and business practices
• Concentrated on creating an industrial society - improved literacy with printed books which increased productivity and growth

Main Global Trade Routes:

1. The Hanseatic League
2. The Silk Road
3. The land routes of the Mongols
4. Trade between China and Japan
5. Trade between India and Persia
6. The Trans-Saharan trade routes between west Africa and the Islamic Empire

• better transportation and monetary systems
• Cultural exchange through travellers stopping at trade towns - Kashgar, Samarkand, silk roads

Hanseatic League

• Made up of over 100 cities
• Created substantial middle class in northern Europe
• Set precedent for large, European trading operations
• Both natural spread of religion through contact over trade and intentional diffusion through missionary work or religious war

Unit 3.1

• Gunpowder empires expanding
• All land-based, expanding, and most used gunpowder, those that won
• Ottoman- sunni islamic, grew rapidly, controlled dardennelse, used gunpowder and controlled large places lile constantinople and blessed wall to pieces, made it istanbul and expanded largely
• Safavid- islam, ismail and shah abas, shia, expaned military/territory using gunpowder,
• Mughal,islam sunni babur, military to expand reach, akbar tolerant of other bliefs, under his leadership mughal most prosperous empire of 16th century
• Qing dynasty, after mongol ming (huan) was established that was chinese with peace and order, also expanded with gunpowder but began to decline from internal division/war and Qing grew, established my Manchu / invaded.
• Rivalries, Safavid/mughal, both wanted to expand to persian gulf but there was religion conflict for muslim heirs
• Singhai vs. morrocan, morrocan tried to control the routes owned by songhai (much of trans saharan), morrocan won because they had gunpowder weapons.

Unit 3.2

• Consolidate (take power from other goups) and legitimize (communicate who is in charge) power
• Large imperial beuracrcies, collection of gov’t official responsible for administering the empire and ensuring laws are kept, Devshirme, ottomans staffed imperial beurocy with high traidned ppl most enslaves (christan boys from conquered) kost put in army but those who were more eduated when to beurcacy.
• Military, janissaries, elite soldiers (christain boys who were conquered/enslaved)
• Religion, art, architecture,
• relgion- divine right of kings (europe) approval of god, Human sacrifice (aztec) priests and rulers would capture prisoners for the ritual to show who was in charge
• Art, qing imperial portraits to show he was the ruler, depicted in confusion values to gain acceptance
• architecture , palace of versailles, grand palace, who ever lives there is in charge, used to consolidate because french nobility lived there part time, remove power from them and move it right under him
• Inca sun temple, a lot of golds rulers associated with god, legitimized
• Financing expansion, zaminadar tax (mughal) collect taxes for the emperor local land owners that were mostly hindu not muslim extendeded and consolidated power
• Zamindar ddint own land but they collected taxes for the state
• Tax farming (ottoman)- right to collect tax to the highest bidder, many collected more tax than legally required, helped give ottoman money through bidding of tax, ottomans did not have to pay them. Owned the land and could remove he peasants if they didnt pay

Unit 3.3

• Belief systems
• Christianity in Europe, the church was active in most states, Eastern orthodox and Roman catholic, church had much power and money while making large projects st.peters in rome, church sold indulgences which were papers that allowed for sin forgiveness, simony, high church positions for sale. Luther wrote 95 thesis (printing press) to critiszie and church was split again. Catholic reformation and got rid of many bad things. States were catholic or protestant.
• Islam, Ottoman sunni and Safavid shia, rightful successor of muhammad, both fought for territory and the military conflict made the split intenify
• New beliefs, mughal, muslims had power, hindus were more abundant, Bhaktism, innovation on Hinduism, one got, mysitcal experience, bhakti shared belifies with sufism and there was exchange and blending, sickhims blended both but also got rid of things like caste/gender heichies.

Unit reviews 1450-1750

Revolutions in European Thought and Expression:

• 1300s: Europe had been Christian for over a thousand years
• As countries began to unify and connect more, especially with countries who had preserved their history, Europe expanded its worldview and explored its past
• Renasissance
• More trade, more movement, more money spent on the past, humanism (on earth instead of salvation), Arts increasing, printing press books and knowledge, literacy
• Protestant reformation, Church capitalized off its many followers with indulgences: paper faithful could purchase to reduce time in purgatory,
• Martin Luther: German monk who published his list of complaints against the church - most significantly proposed salvation was given directly through God, not through the church, which significantly reduced the church’s influence
• Calvinism - John Calvin: predestination - only a few people would be saved by God, great influence in Scotland and France
• When the pope refused to annul King Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon because a heir wasn’t produced, he declared himself the head of religious affairs - presided over Church of England/Anglican Church
• Jesuits - Ignatius Loyola: prayer and good works leads to salvation, go agaianst protestant reformation
• Catholic reformation to remedy controversies
• Scientific revolution, education led to discoveries, earth and sun, scientific method of reasoning, led to industrial revolution, diems, god exists but is passive

EUROPEAN RIVALS

• Spain and portugal, large naval fleet and power, conmtrolled some of france, inquisition, killed non-catholics, led to netherlands losing money due to spain control
• Portugal wanted africa, indian ocean, and spice islands, lost control to dutch and britsh
• Queen elizebeth, british east india company, signed Petition of Rights (limiting taxes and forbidding unlawful imprisonment) - ignored it for the next 11 years
• Charles II: exiled son of Charles I invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell died (Stuart Restoration)
  • Agreed to Habeas Corpus Act: prevents people from arrests without due process
• James II: succeeded Charles II after his death - highly disliked, fear he would make England a Catholic county - driven from power by Parliament (Glorious Revolution)
• Succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William - signed English Bill of Rights (1689) (established the principles of frequent parliaments, free elections and freedom of speech within Parliament)
• France, Unified and centralized under strong monarchy after Hundred Years’ War
• Mainly catholic but protestestants began to emerge (huguenots)
• Henry IV: issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance between religions)
• ouis XIV: reigned from 1642-1715 - highly self-important and grandiose, condemned many Huguenots, never summoned the French lawmakers, appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal funds - France almost constantly at war to increase empire
• Holy Empire was in present day Austria/Germany - weak due to the mixed dynamics, rulership, and religion of the surrounding area
• Russian leaders were overthrowing reigning Mongols in late 15th century
• Moscow became centre of Orthodox Christianity
• Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols and declared them free from their rule - lead Russians, later Ivan IV did too
• Battle for throne after Ivan IV died without an heir - Time of Troubles (1604 to 1613): killing those who tried to rise to the throne
• Catherine the Great: ruled from 1762-1796 - education and Western culture - serf conditions were of no importance to her

Ottoman Empire precedes 1450 - founded by Osman Bey as the Mongol Empire fell

• Eventually invaded Constantinople in 1453 and ended Byzantine Empire
• giving land (timars) to Ottoman aristocrats to control
• Employed practice called devshirme: enslaved Christian children and turned them into warriors called Janissaries
• Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526 - Mughal Empire
• United entire subcontinent
• Akbar: succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605 - united India further with religious toleration, did give Muslim landowners (zamindars) power to tax
• Hindus and Muslims lived side by side in a golden age of art and thought - under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal was built
• Aurangzeb: emperor who ended religious toleration and waged wars to conquer rest of India - Hindus were persecuted
• Starting in 10th century, wealth accumulated from trade - Songhai, Kongo, and Angola became powerful kingdoms
• Kongo:
  • King Alfonso I: Catholic, and converted his people
  • Mostly destroyed by previous allies Portugal
• Angola:
  • Established by Portuguese around 1575 for the slave trade
  • Queen Nzinga resisted Portuguese attempts to further their control for 40 years
• Built huge fleets in early 15th century to explore Asia and Indian ocean - Zheng He: famous Chinese navigator
• Economy started failing due to silver currency inflation, famines in 17th century, peasant revolts
• Qianlong: ruled from 1735 to 1796 and conquered Vietnam, Burma, Nepal
• Shoguns ruled Japan in 16th century, but Christian missionaries came in and Jesuits took control of Nagasaki - westernization
• Tokugawa Shogunate (Edo period) from 1600 to 1868 - strict government that instituted a rigid social class model
• National Seclusion Policy (1635): prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad and prohibited most foreigners
• Ana Nzinga’s Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) - 1641-167
  • Resisted Portuguese colonizers
• Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th century
  • Resisted Russian Empire but were eventually defeated
• Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804
  • Resisted France and eventually achieved independence for Haiti
• Maratha (India) - 1680-1707
  • Resisted Mughal Empire and defeated them starting the Maratha Empire
• Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century
  • Resisted slave-owners in Americas and avoided attempts to be recaptured and sold
• Metacom’s War (US) - 1675-1678
  • Resisted British colonists over unfair trade practices
• Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680
  • Resisted Spanish colonizers and their encomienda system, but victory was temporary
• Millet system

Unit 4.1

• Sea based empires from europe
• Maritime tech
• Magnetic compass, developed in china, allowed for direction
• Astroblabe, by greeks, determine latitude and longitude, location
• Lateen sail- triangula, wind on either side and precise sailing
• Astronimical charts, stars led to knowing direction, muslim
• Europeans adopted not invented, through merchants on routes
• European innovation
• Caravel (Portugal), small and able to enter narrow areas, and had cannons, they also had speed and agility
• Carrack (Portugal) larger with more cargo able to carry more gun
• Dutch flyut, dethroned portgues in indian ocean, made for trade and had massive cargo and requires small crews, cheap to build, responsible for half of all europe shipments.

Unit 4.2

• State sponsored, recovering from black death, populartion growing and monarch recieving power
• Built up militaries, used gunpowder, and learned better ways to tax
• Desire for asian and SE asian spices (pepper)
• Land based empires controlled all the land rountes so when spices reached europe they were very expensive, look to sea
• Portugal, Prince Henry, motivation, technology navigation and ships, econmics like gold and spices, and religion, spread Christianity
• Trading posts, self sufficient around africa and indian ocean and portguese wanted to control the indian ocean and were able to do this with the strong guns on ships
• Spain, sailed west to go to spice islands and found america, conquered and colonized and led through tribute systems, coerced labor, and taxation
• Reasons for exploration, political rivalry, envy, desire for wealth, new routes to asia.
• France, west passage to indian ocean but gained access to fur trades in canada area, died in irgious fights and disease so made trading posts
• England, had large textile industry, and established jamestown
• Dutch gained indepencce from spain and looked to control of trading posts in africa and dethroned the Portuguese, then went to the new world.

4.3

• Columbian exchange, transfer of new disease, food, plants, and animals two gimspheres
• Causes, explorarion to the indian ocean and found the americas which led to new contact between the worlds
• Effect, Disease, Afro-eurasian exposed to disease fro a while but the natives in new world were not, Malaria, measles, and most deadly small pox
• Plants and food, Europe brought wheat, bananas, sugar, and America brought maize, potatoes and manioc which led to more diverse diets, a healthy and more abundant population.
• Cash crops, food is grown for exports, agricultre in new world, single crops on large plantation with coerced (forced) labor, Sugar cane in carribean worked by africans
• Effect animals, europeans brought pigs, sheep, horse, cattle, and had no natural predators so mulitlied fast
• Environmental consequences, ex, sheep eating too much grass and erosion

4.4

• Europeans began developing maritime empirsed to enrich themselves, spread christianity, and be the greatets state
• Portuguese, large tradinbg post empire because they had strong arms while the original states didnt, didnt vare able peace if they had to own and control through force
• Spain, set up in philipines, they established colonies instead of trading posts, using tribute, coerced labor, and taxes.
• Dutch, took over the indian ocean from portugal, used same methods as portuguese to establish control, used force and big guns, used same tactic of British and mughal in indoneasia
• British, set up trading posts in inda (mughal) bc their military wasnt strong enough to take over entire, but later truned them into colonies
• Continuity, older merchants stull used the trade routes and many still used inain ocean even whil it was being do minated
• Japan, resisted Europe due to conversions
• China, Zheng He, wanted to make most trade pass through china, resulted in isolationist polices
• Asante provided large trade with British/proguagese and gave slaves, gold, and ivory whoch led to large military might
• Congo, made strong alliances with portuguese due to trade for gold, copper,and slaves (king and mist nobles now chistian)
• Spanish used inca Mit’a system (silver mining), required to provide labor for state products certain amount of days per year
• Chattle slavery, slaves were owned as property, heridetary race based
• Indentures, contacrt for passage to Americas, live lives afer contract
• Encomiencda, Spanish, indigenous gave laboer to spanish for food and protection, focused on controlling population
• Hacienda, large estates owned by Spaniards where indigenous were forced to work focused on food export
• Slavery, not new, regular in mediterian and indian trade, assimilated culture in where they were sold, change, more male slaves for agriculture work and far larger size, new racial component (black less than human) = violence.

Unit 4.5

• Maritime empires maintained and developed
• Economic strats, mercantilsm, build up of mineral (gold etc.) wealth and have the largest amount through export, as much as we can get, more export than import for more gold and silver. When colony established, closed market to purchase exports from imperial parent country.
• Joint stock company,limited liabitly, government granted and access to trade monopolies, privately not state funded, Dutch east india company, able to expand power and influence
• spain/portugal stuck to state-sponsored, waning influence
• change , atlantic system, sugar importance, silver importance, labor coerced
• Silver, satisfied chinese demand and commercialization of economy, increased profits good purchased in asian markets sold in atlantic system for more money
• Continuity, Afro-eurasian markets on land flourished/increased and they were also still maintained by Asians land powers
• Peasant and artisan labor intensified, peasants subsistence farmed and export farmed
• Social effects, gender imbalance more male slaves, family structure change poligamy, culture synthesis creole langues, european and african
• Belief system, portugal and spain send missionaries to colonies, european culture imposed, “outwardly adopted”, violent retaliation of those who didnt followed

Unit 4.6

• Resistance to Europian expansion
• Frond, france, luis xiv showed absolutism and really wanted war for expansion, raised taxes, Frensch nobily threatend by increasing monarch power, led to rebellion known as fronde
• Queen ana zinga, scared of portugues encroachment and allied with dutch and congo and successfully fought against
• Pueblo revolt, abuse of peublo people fropm spanish missionaries, forced into coerced labor and population dwinded, rebelled against Spanish killed missionaries and temporarily beat spanish although they returned
• Resistance from enslaved
• Maroon in caribbean and brazil, free blacks sometimes ran away and joined these maroon communities (free). In jamaica auithories tried to fight maroons but were unable to due to to fighting back and marron locations deep in forests, a treat signed to recognize the freedom of these communities,maroon revolution
• British colonies, Stono rebellion, experort of rice, many slaves, 100 slaves stromed armory and killed lots of their enslavers, struck fear

Unit 4.7

• Change in social structures
• Response to ethnic diversity,
• Jews, reconquista, rid Iberian pennensula of muslims and christanity was offical religion, saw jews as another threat and wanted them to be expelled.The ottomans tolerated them and many grew to prominence in Ottoman court, could only live in certain areas, and had to pay jezah.
• Qing, division between manchu and huan, haun bared from higher positions, had to wear their hair in a certain way which was humiliating
• Mughal, tolerance for diversity, refused jizah and constructed churches/temples/mosuqes
• New political elites, spanish casta system with the spaniards on top, native people used to be a part of largue groups and cultures but the casta erased this
• Existing elites, russian boyars, land owning class, had great power, but peter the great wanted absolutism, and abolished the rank of boyar
• Ottoman timars, land grants by ottomans to aristocrats for govt service (usually military), grew rich by taxing people that lived on the timars, 16th century the ottoman began taking over and tax farming to make money directly to the state.

Unit Review

• Portugal financed explorations
  • Prince Henry the Navigator (King John I’s son)
  • Vasco da Gama: explored eastern Africa, India
• Spain also did:
  • Financed Christopher Columbus: explored Americas

roducts that aided new explorations:

1. Sternpost Rudder: invented in China - better control of ships
2. Lateen Sails: invented in Roman Empire - allowed directional control of ships
3. Astrolabe: navigation device that measured distance between sun and stars on horizon to determine latitude
4. Magnetic Compass: developed in China - determine direction
5. Three-Masted Caravels: large ships fit for longer journeys

• Hernando Cortés: landed on coast of Mexico in 1519 - sought to exploit the Aztec Empire of their gold and spices
• Spanish brought smallpox to the Aztec Empire which reduced their population from 20 million in 1520 to 2 million in 1580 - Spanish were able to take control in 1525
• Structure:
  • Peninsulares: Spanish officials governing the colonies
  • Creoles: Spanish born in colonies to Spanish parents - barred from high positions but were educated and wealthy
  • Mestizos: those with European/Native American ancestry
  • Mulattos: those with European/African ancestry
  • Native Americans
• Viceroys: governors of each of 5 regions of New Spain - established the encomienda system (system of forced labour of the natives and African slaves, labor and tribute from indignous in exchange for military protection and education)
• Slaves were forced onto ships, chained below deck, and endured brutal Middle Passage
• Around 13 million Africans were taken - 60% to South America, 35% to Caribbean, 5% to North America, around 20% of people on each trip perished
• Europe exploited a system of slavery already existing in Africa - prisoners were supposed to serve their captors before being released
• Columbian exahnge Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, ideas among Europe, Americas, and Africa
• Transfer of food products caused population increase in Europe, Asia, and Africa
• Two key products: sugar (plantations appeared all over Spanish colonies), silver (mining also in Spanish colonies) - both used significant forced labour
• Spanish control of silver opened doors in Ming China, used silver from americas to buy chinese commodities
• Age of Exploration: trading, empire building, conquest - due to financing schemes
• Banking became a respectable practice - lead to joint-stock company (pool resources of merchants to distribute costs and reducing dangers of individual investors)

Mercantilism: theory that creating a favourable balance of import and export was best - of course, this led to Europe’s intense colonialism to match their import demand

• Caused resentment in colonies

urope established limited trade with China from 16-18th century

• Portugal gained control of Spice Islands to gain access to China
• China and Japan still highly limited their trade with them

Topic 5.1 -1750-1900

• The Enlightenment, new ways of thinking that applied rationalism and erpiricim to both natural world and human relations
• Rationlsim, reason is better than emotion
• Empiricm, true knowledge from senses and rigorous experiments
• Scientific revolution (1500-1600), No more biblical, reason, found breakthroughs in science and enlightenment applied these ideas to society
• Rexamination of relgion in the role of life, (christianty was a revealed religion so it couldnt be questioned)
• Diesm, god created things and no longer intervened
• Athiest, no god
• Individualism, human more important than groups, individual progress over societal progress
• Natural rights, humans are borned with rights ex life liberty and porperty (Locke)
• Social contract, human societies must construct govts of their own will to protect their natural rights
• Effects, revolutions, american, french, haitian, new traditions and new ideas about political power and structure led to nationalsim
• Sufferage,whites with land to all white males to vote and later black males could vote. Declartions had ideas of liberty and ewuality
• Aboltion of slavery, britain 1807 from economic profits and protest
• Serfdom ending, agriculture to industrial economy so no need for serfs to cultivate land, peasants revolts as well
• Women suffrage, feminist movements, olympe gouge, consitution should give women rights as well.

Unit 5.2

• Causes, nationalism, commonality among people based on religion, culture, language, social customs, or territorial desire (same should have own territory and rule themselves). Many states tried to push this which angered states that did not have the same cultures.
• Political dissent, safavid revolution to high taxes, led to weakening and which led to ability
• Wahabi, end corrupted islam in the ottoman, contributed to the decline
• New ideoligies and government systems, popular sovereignty (govern by people), democracy (right to influence), LIberalism (civil rights, representing govt, private prop, economic freedom.
• American revolution, america already had their own culture/economics, britain had large debts after 7 years war and had to impose large taxes, provided template for other states and decloartion of independce displayed enlightenment
• French revolution, louis wanted to tighten his rule to pay his own war debt, led to revolution and overthrow, new rupublic with declorations of rughts of man and citizen
• Haitian, owned by france and prosperous, found out about france revolution, and revolted to free from french and establish 2nd republic and black govt.
• Latin American, get rid of spanish control and casta heiucrchy, after nepolian invaded spain colonies got shaky, led to revolution with leader, letter from jamaica, by simon bolivar appeals to popular socernty and independence,
• Propaganda, philippines, racial heirchy with spand and education rights controlled, wealthier went to europe to study and gained enlightenment ideas, and there was a revolution
• Nationlaism brought together Germany and Italy.

Unit 5.3

• Induistrial revolution, agrian to industrial made by machines
• Britan, had waterways (trasnport etc.),
• had lots of coal, enabled good iron efficiency, which led to bridges machines etc,
• access to foreign resources from imperialism.
• Good agriculture productivity (agricultural revolution), crop rotation (land fertility), seed drill (accuate less waste), new foods like potato from columbioan exchange,
• Rapid urbanization, less people needed on farms from new tech
• Legal prtoection of private property, incentive to take risks
• Accumlation of capital, Altlanrtic slave trade rich people
• The factory system, water frame (power) and spinning Jenny (make cotton), and specilization of labor and they were like cogs almost easily replaceable.

Unit 5.4

• Steampower, fossil fuel to energy, no longer needed factory near water, they were also in ships, led to faster travel, connection, and transport.
• Those who had more of the factors in 5.3 adopted faster, eastern and souther eu lacked coal and low water access, hinder through powerful groups, led to slow
• Asia and middle east production declined india and egypt textile (cheaper in Britain) and ship building in india/southest asia (colonial takeover by britain and ships had to be made for the navy)
• France, lacked coal and iron, after napoleon who made quentin canal, link paris to coal deposits, led to industrialization, but due to slow transition resided revolt
• U.S., after civil war industruialzed fast and had most same factors as Britian, economy grew posperous and had larger standard of living
• Russia, under tsar, knew they needed to inustrialized, made transiberian railroad, ledto increase in trade with states like china and larger market within russia, brutal conditions for workers with uprising, led to russian revolution
• Japan, many asian states declining in power, didnt want to be in the same boat as china so they did meiji restoration, more tech and education, one of the most powerful in the region through industry.

Unit 5.5

• New technology
• Fuels and engine,
• 1st revolution, britain, 1750-180, coal and steam engine, no need for water and steams, used to power trains and ships for speed and transport, new coaling stations to refuel, opening fo suez 1869, more steam ships and trade.
• Second revolution, russia, japan, us, etc, 1870-1914, oil, combustion engine, smaller, used gas, more energy, both had environmental consequences
• New tech, Steel (besmer Process), more stringer and versatile than iron, and way cheaper to produce
• Chemical engineering, synthetic cheaper dyes for textiles, volcanization to make rubber harder and more durable
• electricity , lightbulbs for homes and factories, telegraph for communication along distant places with morse, britain connected with U.S.
• Effects, interior regions, no longer need to be near the coast from communication and more accessible trade
• Increase in trade and migration, states more linked, more migration ½ rural to migration and 20% migrated to other states

Unit 5.6

• Eygyptian (ottoman) industrialization, largely independent, ottoman struggling and declining due to internal corruptio and conflict, little energy/wealth for industrializing
• Egypt industrialized on its own, textile and weapon factories built, government purchased crops to be sold on world market for profit, taxes on imported goods to protect economy development
• Great britain did not like the industrialization (needed power for suez) and when egypt went to war with ottoman british intervened and made them remove tarrifs, more british goods, and industry couldnt compete
• Japan, didnt want to be like china, forced to open by Mathew perry, Japsn started agressive states sponsored industrialization to defend western dominance, japanese civil war with overthrow of shoguate and new emporer by a group of samurai
• Maji restoration, escape dominance by industry, Japan send emmisaries to western powers to learn about the tech, culture, education, politics- for their own state. Later barrowed more selectively. New constitution with elected parliament (borrowed from germany). New railroads and national bank, textile and munition factories.

Unit 5.7

• Slow death of mercantilism, for free market economics, Wealth of nation by adam smith and said that mercantalims exploited and only helped the elite, and wanted more lazie faire with suplly and demand with more prosperity and balance
• These changed did lead to more trade and wealth proving smith right
• Capatalist, mde more working class, critic Jermy bentham, said only government legislation could cure the working class no free econonmics, Friedrich list, global free market as a trickto bring countries under domination, led to zollverian which was a customs union that reduced trade barriers between german states bounding them together and put tariffs on imported goods to protect own industry
• Transnational corps, honh kong and shanghai banking, opened in british hong kon to organize and control british imperial ventures, unilever by british and dutch to manufacture household good (soap), factories in several countries with resources from colonial holdings
• Stock market, limited liability corbs take risk but had protection and could only lose what they invested and no more.
• New middle class with better living standards and consumerism, production cheaper and more efficient with access due to tech innovation, new mechanized farming and more abundance.

Unit 5.8

• Calls for reform, working class, political both conservatives and liberals in britain and france made social reforms becasye ppl who wanted reforms were voting
• Social reform, working class made social societies providing insurance for sickness and social events
• Educational, high paying jobs more technicalized, cumpolory education prepared children for these
• Urban reform, laws and investment for infustration like sewers
• Labor union, workers together to protect interest, illagal before reforms, had more power to negotiate together, and grew and wanted wages and better hours and conditions, turned into parties that wanted reform, German social democratic party from the general german workers association, marxist reform capitalist to socialist.
• Ideological, Karl marx, believed capitalism had large class division, workers suffered rich had too much fun, communist manifesto, argued history moves through pattern and stages, intense changes by the industrial revolution had made the division between buorgeosise and proletariat and believed the proletariat would revolt
• Qing, snubbed brisist traders, british started selling illegal opium, and qing cracked down for the opuim trade and Brisish won easlily and other countries took advantage of china when they saw the loss
• Led to self strengthening wich lef to industrialization and revitalize new culture and many resisted and failed after sino-japanese and japanese won
• Ottoman, sick man of europe, ottomans not industrialized, tanzimat reforms for defense, new factories, law codes, courts, education (secular and not islamic driven), yoiung ottomans emerged and wanted a prliment and govt that would not power the sultan, and the reforms were stronger than in china

Unit 5.9

• Change in hierarchies and living standards
• New industrial working class, rural who moved for work, most worked had skills before but now they had unskilled labor, viewed as interchangeable. Had higher wages than rural, dnager in factories and croweed living, disease, repetive work,
• Middle class benifited most with facory owners and lawers, managers, doctors, afforded manufactured products, could buy into aristcacy
• Industrialist, top, owneed corps, more powerful than landed aristoctayc
• Women, working class worked bc husband wage too low, children worked away from fam, led to child laws
• Middle class women, did not work, husbands made money, defined by domestic homemakers, safeheaven for children and nurturing environment.
• Challenges, industrial cities grew to quick for infrastructure to keep up, pollution, coal smoke and toxic fog and human/industry waste into cities and bad drinking water and bad smell
• Housing shortage with small tenamanets with bad sanitation, no vents, more disease
• crime , people poor and concentrated with robbing from debt and violence from alchol.

Unit 5 review

• Divine Right: church allied with strong monarchs, monarchs believed they were ordained by God to rule - people had moral/religious obligation too obey
  • Mandate of Heaven in China - had to rule justly to be appreciated in heaven
• Social contract: governments not formed by divine decree, but to meet social and economic needs
• Adam Smith (1723-1790): an “invisible hand” will regulate economy if it is left alone
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): women should have political rights, including voting and holding office
• ean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): all men are equal, society organized according to general will of people - government is protection by community and both being free
• John Locke (1632-1704): men are all born equal, mankind is good and rational - primary role of government was to secure and guarantee natural rights and revolting is justified if not

American Revolution

• British defeated France over American territory - French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War - pushed France to northern territory
• ritish passed laws on behalf of Crown for the American colonizers
• homas Paine: wrote Common Sense, encouraging colonizers to form a better government than the monarchy - 6 months later the Declaration of Independence was signed

French Revolution

• France was running out of money from monarch spending, wars, and droughts - Louis XVI proposed raising taxes to the Estates-General (governing body infrequently called by the kings)
  • First Estate: clergy
  • Second Estate: noble families
  • Third Estate: everyone else
  • Representatives from each estate
• Declaration of the Rights of Man - adopted by National Assembly in 1789 and caused big changes in French government structure
• Established a constitutional monarchy at first, but new constitution development led to the Convention being the new ruling body - France become a republic (
• French beheaded Robespierre in 1795 and established another new constitution with the Directory as the government
• Napoleon overthrew the Directory in 1799 - Napoleonic Codes (1804) recognized equality of men, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire with French military and fought other countries who eventually met to overthrow him

Congress of Vienna:

• Balance of power should be maintained among powers of Europe
• Tried to erase French Revolution

Haiti:

• France enslaved many Haitians, who eventually revolted successfully, led by Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture

South America

• Napoleon invaded Spain and appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte to the throne -
  • Colonists ejected French governor and appointed own leader in Venezuela, Simón Bolívar, who eventually helped them declare independence from Spain in 1811
• Established a national congress, but was also opposed by Spanish royalists, who declared a civil war

Mexico

• priest Miguel Hidalgo led a revolt against Spanish rule in 1810, who was later killed by them
• Independence achieved in 1821 - Treaty of Cordoba: Spain recognizing their 300-year-old control of Latin America was ending
• Mexican Revolution: protest of neocolonialism - rejection of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship to protest impoverished conditions
• Peru
  • Tupac Amaru II led a revolt against Spanish occupiers and inspired further resistance movements
• West Africa
  • Samory Toure led resistance against French colonizers and inspired further resistance
• US
  • Sioux resisted the US government invading their land, but were shot at during their protests
• Sudan
  • Muhammad Ahdam led Mahadists in a revolt against colonial rule of Egypt but was stopped by the British
• Industrial countries gained power quickly to exploit colony resources
• Industrial Revolution: began in Britain in 19th century - spread through Europe, Japan, US
• Agricultural output increased significantly again - more people moved to cities

ed to cities

• Enclosure: public lands that were shared for farming became enclosed by fences
• New farming technologies
• Urbanization was natural - London grew to over 6 million people
• Domestic system (most work being done on farms or at home or at small shops) preceded
• Spinning jenny: spinning vast amounts of thread
• Cotton gin: invented by Eli Whitney - processed massive amounts of cotton quickly
• Steam engine - Thomas Newcomer, James Watt
• theory of natural selection (Charles Darwin)
• Formation of new social classes - aristocrats were those rich from industrial success, middle class of skilled professionals, huge working class
• Adam Smith: success achieved through private ownership and free market system (capitalism) - governments removed from regulation = laissez-faire capitalism
  • Start of stock market and other financial instruments
• Karl Marx: The Communist Manifesto - working class take over means of production and all resources would be equally - Marxism was foundation for socialism and communism
• Factory Act of 1883: limited hours of each workday, restricted children from working, factory owners had to make conditions safer
  • Labour Unions: vehicles for employees to bargain for better conditions
  • Living conditions improved - middle class became larger, public education increased, social mobility became more common
  • Slave trade abolished in 1807 in Britain
  • Women became more limited to their traditional roles

taly and Germany, which were city-states took longer to unify and alter balance of European power

• Italy: Count Camillo Cavour named prime minister of Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel II who pushed for nationalism - after Giuseppe Garibaldi, another nationalist overthrew other Italian kingdoms, a lot of Italy was unified in 1861
• Germany: Prussia, which controlled a lot of present-day Germany, under the rule of William I who appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister, defeated Austria and engaged in the Franco-Prussian War to create the new German Empire
  • New emperor William II forced Bismarck to resign and built a huge military force
• Romanov czars had absolute power in 19th century
• Alexander II began reforms - Emancipation Edict: abolished serfdom but had little effect
• Ottoman Empire: was at danger of collapse so Britain and France worked to maintain it to prevent Russia from gaining control over Mediterranean
• Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-state/empires that protects their cultural identity

Unit 6.1 1750-1900

• Ideologies for new wave of imperialsim,
• Old imperialism dominated americas and indian ocean, didnt care about new enlightenment ideas and embarked on new imperialism
• God, gold, glory but more
• Nationalism, commonality with language, religion, custums, etc, liked with desire for self rule within territory, people thiught they were a subject for a ruler but now they were more loyal to the nation, unification of italy and germany, led to imperialism bc nationalism was also a sense of being better, more rivalry for power status
• Scientific racism, humans can be ranked by race, new science to prove no longer religious, white race had bigger skulls and they were superior and justfied theur take over of other states
• Social darwinism, species developed and evolved through natural selection, certain species and characteristics survived bc they were better suited, survival of the fittest, believed it exlained society the western societies provide they were better suited in the current environment and it must have been the best way ti survive to eat the weaker nations
• Civilizing mission, duty for western societies to bring their glory to lower nations, send missionaries for conversion, reoganization of colonial govts to western models, and western style education (supress indigenous language/culture)

Unit 6.2

• Shifting grographical focus from americans, asia, and se asia, to Africa, asia and SE asia, no amerias
• Change in the imperial states, spaun and portgual declining, GB, France, and Ducth cont. And german, italy, belgium, us, and Japan added
• State takeover of private colonies, belgium congo in africa, held by king of belguim and were relatuvly newly independent and parliament didnt feel like claiming colonies so the king found way to gain control for himself, because he “humanitarian” and wanted to cause convert to christianity and brign western eduation, only wanted to expolit rubber (loss of lives) and belguim took it back when they heard
• British toom inda from company and dutch took indonesia, private to state
• Diplomacy and warfare, berlin confernece, competiton for africa “scramble for africa”, fueled new imperialsim for more power and had the new tech to esaclate quick, led to negotiations to resist war and africa was carved, no africans in confrence and ehtinc groups split and combined rivals with new borders.
• Warfare, french in algeria, france did not pay algeria for wheat and the ruler hit the french diplomat and 35k troops were sent to invade, french prevailed.
• Settler colonies, claims inhabitied territor and send own people to set up their own outposts for society, in australia/zealand, killed indiginous thriugh disease Maui
• Conquering neighbors, U.S. westward and manifest destiny to own all territoy on that continent, displaced indisnous, forced assimilation for americanized. Russia lost crimean war, panslavism spread, unite all slavs under russiaincluding those in ottoman and austraian, led to new campaigns for territory takeover with new trading posts. Japan, had many railroads and industries and build an empire in korea, manchuria, and china.

6.3

• Causes of resistance, questions about political authority, imperialist indtroduced western education to colonies and enlightment though liek popular sovereignty and social contract and educated questioned domination
• Growing nationalism, resisted new culture, language, customs, etc
• Direct resistance violence, 1857 rebellion in india, tupac amaru, yaa aswante, british wanted to conquer for gold, 5th try led to war bc assante has golden stool which was a sense of authortiy, and the leader led a resistance with violence and shamed men by saying if u dont fight women will, british was stringer and claimed
• New states, cherokee in U.S., repsoned by assimilating, but indian removal act forced them to be removed and they resetlled in oklahim with their own govt/system, westward expansion led to much of the territory being put in america
• Religious Xhosa cattle killing southern africa, british had better tech and was tking territoy, their cattle was dying most lieky by disease from the euros, relgious movement believed that if the Xhosa slaughtered cattle the new healrthy would rise up to replace them and the ancestral dead would rise up and remove the british, led to self starvation and easier british takeover.

6.4

• Development of export coloines, imperials wanted more natural resources, before colonizing people were mostly subsistence farming, imperialist changed economies to serve personal interests, industrial crops,
• Cause, neeed for factories and many colonies were dedicated to exporting items like cotton to britain, and palm oil from africa with slave labor, guano in pacific.
• Need to supply food to urban areas, not enough food and needed to import, colonies produced cash crops like sugar, coffee, or ahd ranches for meat
• Effects, profits from exports used to purchase manufactured goods, provided a closed market for indusrtialists to export
• Growing economic dependence on imperial, reoganization only helped the imperialists not the indigenous, colonials became more dependent due to this reorganiation

6.5

• Diff types of imperialism, many didnt colonize due to cost
• Economic imperialism, control through economies, opuim wars with china, british restricted to one port to trade, british wanted chinese stuff chinese not rly. British used opuim bc chinese wanted it and the officials banned it and britain attacked. Due to victory they now had large economic influence (treaty of nanjing). Qing weakening from taiping, get rid of manchu, qing military one after using a lot of money, (none left to industrialize)
• Second opuim war with france and british and even more new ports and treaties, other nations carved chine into spheres of influence to dominate economically
• Port of Buenes aries, british invested in Argentina infrustrueyed to export natural resources, funded by brits, increase exports, dependence on brit investment.
• Trade in commodities,cotton in india and egypt, dependent on external demand for raw materials, palm oil, africa.

6.6

• Migration causes shaped by industry , more indusry more migrants
• Demographic change, large population growth, more jobs opportunities not in rural areas
• Famine, irish potato famine, blight struck potato crops, led to famine in death and many migrated to survive, they had to go elsewhwere (u.s)
• Tnis period was diff because of new tech, cheap transport Rail/steamship, majority migrated in cities, many left and never returned home but some took advantage of cheap transport and went home
• Lebonese merchants in argentina and brazil, economic opportunity/escape religious persecution of ottoman, able to return due to constant steam ships
• Economic cause (work), voluntarily for better life (U.S) immigrants, millions migrated becuase they had to (coerced labor), Atlantic slave trade still a thing and convict labor in Australia/french guana sent to colonical holdings to build infrastructure
• Semi coerced, indentured servitude fro passage, cheap labor, indian to caribbean, africa, and SE asia

6.7

• Effects of migration
• Gender imablance more woman than men at home and roles changed and took men jobs, women took masculine role and led household, sold food on their own and got financial independence and new family structures, what is man i have my own money
• Ethinc enclave, people of same culture in a diff culture, urban areas had enclaves, they were an outpost where culture was expressed in society and they were places of familiarity
• Cultural diffusion, irish enclave in the east, led to the growth of catholicism in the US, chinese in SE asia and big in colonial culture
• Nativism, interests of natives over immigrants, ehtnic/racial prejeduce, irish deemed a lower race, some govt’ passed policies to reduce immigtants, chinese exclusion act due to the riots and lynchings of chinese, White australia, no chinese immigrants in Australia and no asians in austrailia, mainly brits.

Unit 6 review

• Europe had colonized nations on every continent - depleted raw materials in these nations at extreme speed and destroyed and polluted environments
• Transnational Businesses: international corporations that strengthened Europe’s economic power in Asia and Africa
• 
• Social Darwinists: applied natural selection to sociology - there were dominant races or classes , therefore Britain was the most powerful/fit
• Moral obligation to civilize others - Rudyard Kipling’s poem “White Man’s Burden” described colonization as justified
• India had many luxuries to Europeans - tea, sugar, silk, salt, jute
• India was vulnerable to external powers after wars in 18th century Mughal empire and religious conflict
• France and England battled each other in Seven Year’s War for colonial superiority and Britain won
• British East India Company: joint-stock company like a multinational corporation - had exclusive British trade rights in India
• 1885: group of Indians formed Indian National Congress to fight for independence - wouldn’t be achieved until mid-20th century

European Imperialism in China

• Up until 1830s, Europe could only trade with China in city of Canton - China was relatively isolationist, until Europe gained industrial power and barged in with weapons

opium Wars: British traders brought Opium to China in 1773 and widespread addiction was caused - forbidden and seized in 1839

• Britain wanted to continue trade, so brought war to China
• Treaty of Nanjing: China forced to sign unequal treaty that gave Britain considerable rights to expand trade with China
• Second Opium War occurred in 1856 for four years when Britain tried to further trade and China lost again - all of China opened to trade

British takeover caused Chinese to turn on their government’s failings

• White Lotus Rebellions (beginning of 19th century): Buddhists who were frustrated over taxes and government corruption
• Taiping Rebellion (mid-19th century): rebels led by religious zealot who almost succeeded in taking down Manchu government
• Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s): Manchu Dynasty attempt to get its act together, which failed
• Korea declared independence from China in 1876
• Sino-French War (1883): Chinese lost control of Vietnam
• Defeated by Japan in Sino-Japanese War
• France, Germany, Russia, Britain took their own spheres of influence in China - not quite colonies as Manchu Dynasty still had authority
• in 1900, US pledged to support sovereignty of Chinese government and equal trading to prevent full British takeover (Open Door Policy) - despite barring Chinese immigrants from US in 1882 (Chinese Exclusion Act)
• Boxers: Chinese peasant nationalists attempted to rebel by slaughtering Christian missionaries and controlling foreign embassies in response to government’s defeats and concessions to the West, but failed
  • Boxer Protocol: China forced to pay Europeans and Japanese with rebellion costs
• Chinese culture also started to crumble - imperial government ended in 1911 and a republic was established in China

Japanese Imperialism

• Japan kept Europeans away in 17th and 18th centuries - until European and US appetite for power intensified and Commodore Matthew Perry arrived from US in a steamboat in 1853 - Japan felt obligated to join industrialized world
• Meiji Restoration: era of Japanese westernization - Japan became a world power
  • 1870s: built railways and steamships, abolished samurai warrior class
  • Prioritized military power - took control of Korea and Taiwan from China in 1895 - military pageantry became a cultural movement
  • 1890s: Japan became powerful enough to reduce European and US influence

European Imperialism in Africa

• Interior Africa remained unknown to Europeans - costal regions used for limited trade, ship stopping points, and the slave trade

1807-1820: most European nations abolished slave trade as Enlightenment principles gained more force - slavery abolished a few decades later

• No new enslaved people entered Europe but those still in slavery were not free until mid-century

South Africa: Dutch first arrived and settled Cape Town - British seized it in 1795

• South African Dutch (Boers) moved northeast and discovered diamonds and gold - British followed and fought the Boer War (1899-1902) to gain rights to resources, which they won
• Suez Canal constructed with French and completed in 1869 - connected Mediterranean to Indian Ocean (eventually British took control of it too)

Berlin Conference

• Otto van Bismarck hosted European powers in Berlin in 1884 to discuss land claims in African Congo - encouraging colonialism
• Europeans added substantial infrastructure to the continent, but stripped Africa of resources, most exercised direct rule and implementation of customs over African people (except British who were already busy with India)
• Europeans disregarded African boundaries, cut tribal land in half or forced enemy tribes together, ignoring history and culture
• Monroe Doctrine: US President Monroe declared Western Hemisphere off-limits to Europeans in 1823 - Britain agreed out of fear of Spain’s potential actions
• US was exercising own imperialism over Latin America - built their Panama Canal in Panama
• US launched Spanish-American War in 1898 to aid Cuba in their conflict with Spain - defeated Spain and gained control over Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba (given independence in exchange for construction of US military bases)

7.1 1900-present

• maratime/land bases empires falling and giving rise to new states
• Decline of ottoman, tanzimat did not work, young ottomans were western educated and called for liberal political reform and sultan agreed with consitution, when threatend by russia he went back to dictatorship, young turks emerged who wanted modernization and viewed ottoman as turkik (nationlism), overthrew sultan, reforms such as secular school/law, electio, turkish officsl language, arab alienated and state was weakening due to internal fractioning.
• Russian revolution, some industry by tsar, middle class did not authoritarian and working class was suffering industrializing, industrializtion of 1905, lost, some demands excepted, consitutuioin, legal labor union, political parties, mostly ignored however
• War and continued difficulties led to 1917 revolution, Marxist, bolsheviks, successful, new soviet state
• Qing, china carved, taiping rebellion many death, opuim war loss, sino-japanese war loss, Society of rightous and harmous fist, boxer rebelion agaisnt qing, Bristish french and japanese sent troops to help qing cs they were broke, they wanted to impose demands on china
• Sun yat sen, end of qing emperor, new govt, china emerged as communist we moa
• Mexican revolution, Diaz policies made ervyone mad, tg get rid of him, civil wars and mexico came back as a republic with new consitiution and wide reform that caused revolution, suffrage, minimum wage, less power in church, more confined to mexico not many international effects

7.2

• Causes of WW1
• Militarism, large military to protect interests, industrial productibty, faster and deadlier weapon production, German had a strong on, france had internal problems not much military, britiain militarsim drained resources and affected more than Germany
• Alliance system, triple alliance, triple entente, created for national security or isolation, mobilization plan for war, railroads, timetables, hard to stop mobalization if it started
• Nationalism, commonality of own people other states as enemies, taught in schools, media, hatred for other countries, convinced their identity was under threat from ither states, force not compromise
• Imperialsim, power on the world stage, germany wanted more and had conflicts over existing holding cs there were no more new ones,
• Assisination ofr france ferdinand, spoarked the war and stirred the entire pot, nationalsim caused it, alliance made it bigger, and military mobilizatioin process
• Conflict in the balkans

7.3 1914-1918

• Total war, mobiliation of entire pop, military and civilians, diff from most wars, civilians were targets
• propagand , demonized enemies, exaggerated atrocities, rightous struggle and sacrifice was okey for their own benefit, art and media, used nationalism, viewed world as enemy rivals, national identities most important
• Strategies, shliefan plan, new tech made it deadly, machine guns, gas, tanks
• Trensch warfare, miles for protection from machine guns and had barbed wire, one side left the tresnh they would be gunned down, many stalemates with casualties and no progress, prolonged war
• Colonial powers brough troops from africa, india, china, nz etc, and there were also porters, many didnt want to fight but did to to have more idnependence or possible self rule, didnt work
• End, U.S. entry allies due to mexico war attempt adn ship sink, new troops and 1918, signing of versailles, punished germany.

7.4

• German hyperinflation, treaty gave high rpeerations and germany in debt due to war spending loans, printed more money and value went down, since germany ddint pay back to gb/france they couldnt pay U.S., soviets had communist revolution and said new nation debts dont transfer
• Colonial govts suffered bc they depended on imperialist country
• 1924 economic situation stable from germany borrowing from US banks to pay reparations and things going good
• Soviet left war but still devastated and lenin institiuded new economic polices in 1923, limited free market biggest institution still under state control, stalin got power and wanted industrialization and led 5 year plan with brutality, agriculture colectivizing, Kulaks restied and they were sent to camps and peasants couldnt match quotas, large famines, no food for farmers (holodomar)
• Great depression, other states depended on US helping rebuild, stock market crash, bad US economy, US could not contiue to fund so everyone suffered
• 1930 Depression led to more hands on control of economy by govt, new deal, infrastructure projects, retirement program, medical insurance elderly/children

7.5

• Mandate system, division of territories in versailles, rosevelt wanted self-determination and many colonial people expected this, many refused so they maed mandate system administered by UN, A,B,C
• europeans and japanese maintained holdings, states gained more after war, new states like turkey
• Japan expansion, invaded manchuria and league did not have power to stop and japan left league, took parts of china, manchukoa, more territory as Greater East Asia Co-prosperity sphere
• Anti imperial resistance, indian nation congress petition british for more self rule, Mohandas Gandhi led antiviolent resistance, led to independce
• African nation congress, found by lawyers/journalists, equal rights for colonial subjects of south africa, Pan-africanism, Unity of all balck peopel across world, opposed policy and were secuessful after ww2

7.6

• Causes of ww2
• Italy didnt recieive promised land austria/ottoman, why they fought against germany, but italy was useless and they witheld the land
• Germany had to pay large reparations/debt (hyperinflation), demilitarize made them vulnerable, entire war guilt was on germy (humiliating)
• Imperilasm, japan in pacific and china, LON couldnt do anyhting, italy expanded on its own, Germy took back rhine and czeck/austria for “living space”
• Appeasement, other states didnt stop germany bc they didnt want another war and germany got cocky
• Economic crisis, great depression, many populations unemployed and hungry, strongmen made promises to make stuff better
• Facist/totalitarian, Stalin, wanted to make communism worldwide and worried western powers, facism, extreme nationalism, authoritarian lead/military means for goals. Mussolini in Italy, lower living standard, ssn/public services, relief from depression suffer, used massive parades and speeches/tech to make nationalism
• Germany, facism in Nazi, mass communication tech, common enemy was socialist, communist, and jew , imprived living standard, cure to suffering/humiliation was apealing, cancel reparation, remilitarize (would help economy too), and territorial expansion, kill all impure races

7.7

• Total war, more than ww1,
• Cause, hitler invaded poland, then the western powers needed to step in, war and alliance system, axis and allies, societ/germans had non-agression pact but hitler broke it, US helped britain with money and guns but after pearl harbor they were in the war
• Mobilization, used propaganda to provoke nationalism and demoniize enemies, sow feas (massive armies/civilians keep sacrificing at home), and colonial troops
• Ideologies, facism, glorified state and used military, served state not people interest, able to mobvalize people for war easierm, captures staes focrced to help factories of war, communism, rapid indusry with harsh demands but raised demaands even more to mobalize, democracy, not totalitarian so they couldnt mobilze on their own and had to persuade the people so they propaganda made the war “a peoples war”, govt promised welfare expansion
• Japoenese in america put into camps, jews excluded/killed in german society,
• Stragetgies and tech, blitzkreig, shock enemy and eliminate with speed, air assault from plains, infrantry in tanks
• Fireebombing, small expolive devises fired in urban areas that did not explode but caused harm through fires tokyo japan, massive fire
• Atomic bomb by the US (hiroshima and nagasaki)

7.8

• Mass atrocities in 20th century
• causes , ww2 120 million deaths 50% civilian, new techs with firebombing and atomic bomb
• Rise of exreme political ideologies, destroy population based off race or ehtnicity
• Armenian genocide, ottoman primarlity turkik, armenian christian were exterminated and starved due to fear they would help other states
• Holocaust, pure german race, final solution, killed many jews, nuremburg laws, industrial tech to extermine fast and effieinct
• Cambodian genocide, khmer rouge took power under pol pot, china supported, teied to turn cambodia into agrarian and remove western influence, forced to work in labor camp, exterminates western educated, not racially, killed ¼ of pop.

The World War I Era

• At beginning of 20th century, most of world was colonized by Europe or had been colonized by Europe - everywhere was connected to instability in Europe
• Triple Alliance (1880s): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy - protect against France
• France-Russian alliance to keep Germany in check
• Schlieffen Plan: Germany’s attack on France through Belgium, a neutral country
• Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia - later joined by Japan
• Ottoman Empire was in bad shape and kept losing territory - Greece, Slavic areas declaring independence, countries disagreeing on land arrangements and allies
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina still under control on Austria-Hungary, as decided by Berlin Conference of 1878
• Austria-Hungary Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited Bosnia and was assassinated
• Central Powers Alliance: Ottoman Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary
• US joined the Allies in 1917 after Germany sunk British boat Lusitania in 1915
• Germany trying to get Mexico to join the war in 1916 (Zimmermann telegram - a secret telegram between German diplomats saying Mexico could regain territory taken by US if they joined forces)

The Treaty of Versailles: signed in 1919 - official end to WWI

• Germany was to pay war reparations, release territory, downsize military to prevent them from rising to power again - poverty and resentment in Germany led to Hitler’s rise

Russian Revolution

• Socialists began to organize after Czar Nicholas II’s forced resignation in 1917, resentment was strong among working class
  • Had lost war against Japan over Manchuria in 1904
• Fired at peaceful protestors in 1905 (Blood Sunday)
• Socialist party is known as the Bolsheviks - led by Marxist leader Vladimir Lenin
• April Theses: issues by Lenin - demanded peace, land for peasants, power to soviets
• a genocide of Armenian minority and a shift to Turkish nationalism - which resulted in loss of most of remaining land in peace negotiations
• Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk): led successful military against invading Greece and overthrew Ottoman Empire to become first president of Turkey

Stalin and the Soviet Union

• Lenin first instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1920s - allowed farmers to sell portions of grain for profit - successful, but Lenin died and new Communist leader, Joseph Stalin discarded it
• Five-Year Plans: taking over private farms for state-owned enterprises (collectivization) - really was totalitarianism

The Great Depression

• War was expensive and Europe owed a lot of money to America (especially France and Germany)
• Money was based on credit, loans that would never be repaid = US stock market crash in 1929 leading to international catastrophe
• US and Germany hit the hardest - 1/3 of workforce unemployed, loss of trust in government = fascism

Fascism

• Main idea: destroy will of individual in favour of the people
• Wanted a unified society like communists, but did not eliminate private property or class distinctions
• Pushed for extreme nationalism - often on racial identity
• Fascism in Italy
  • First fascist state - founded by Benito Mussolini in 1919

Rise of Hitler

• Revolt when German emperor was abdicated after WWI - a conservative democratic republic took over (Weimar Republic)
• Mussolini’s success in Italy was influencing Germany - Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis) rose to power in 1920s
• Adolf Hitler became head of Nazi Party - believed in extreme nationalism and superior race - believed the Aryan race was the most superior race

Appeasement?

• Hitler began rebuilding military (against Treaty of Versailles) and withdrew Germany from League of Nations
• Francisco Franco took control of large parts of Spain - established a dictatorship in Spain in 1939 with help from Germany and Italy
• Germans and Soviets signed a pact to stay out of each other’s countries (Nazi-Soviet Pact) and agreed to divide rest of Europe’s land between them
• Germany invaded Poland and Britain and France then declared war on Germany - start of WWII

Japan

• Became a world power when accepting an alliance with Britain in 1905
• Economy thrived after WWI until the Great Depression - Japanese militarists gained momentum
• Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and renamed in Manchukuo
• Withdrew from League of Nations and signed Anti-Comintern Pact (against communism) with Germany, beginning their alliance
• In 1937, began war on China which eventually merged into WWII
• Hitler’s blitzkrieg technique destroyed everything in its path - by early 1940 Germany had control of Poland (half with USSR), Holland, Belgium, France
• Britain’s PM Winston Churchill did not give in to Germany’s pressures - even with German airstrikes from their more powerful airforce (Battle of Britain)
• in response to US sanctions, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in 1941 and declared war with US’
• To end war in Pacific, US drops atomic bomb on city of Hiroshima in Japan - when Japan refused to surrender, they dropped another bomb on Nagasaki, causing them to surrender
• US instituted Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe (only accepted by Western Europe nations) and rebuilt their economies in less than a decade
• War inspired native populations to rise against their oppressors

The Holocaust

• Millions of Jews under German control were rounded up and killed in concentration camps to create the Aryan race

The Peace Settlement

• US and Soviet Union became superpowers and Germany and Japan forced to demilitarize
• Women took over the workforce while men were fighting - after the war, many women kept their jobs
• United Nations, established in 1945, to prevent break out of another great war - goal was to mediate and intervene in international disputes
• UN published Universal Declaration of Human Rights in response to Holocaust
• World Bank, International Monetary Fund, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs also formed to manage a global economy

Cold War

• US or Soviet Union did not want each other to spread its influence beyond their borders, so they were strategizing how to contain each other - lasting for the next 50 years

8.1

• Cold war, state of
• Cold War lasted from 1945 to early 90s
• US and Soviet Union tried to get the rest of the world to side with them
• An arms based race between - nuclear arsenals became large enough to wipe out the whole world
• At conferences in Yalta and Potsdam in 1945, parts of Eastern Europe were divided among Allied forces - Soviet Union demanded control of its neighbouring states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria), which the US disagreed with
• 1948: French, US, British sections of Germany merged into one, while Eastern Germany was under Soviet control - they cut of access to Berlin from Western side (Berlin Blockade)
  • US flew in resources to trapped Western side (Berlin Airlift) until Soviets relented and split Berlin in half - built a wall on their side (Berlin Wall)
  • East: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary = Soviet bloc
  • West: Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, West Germany, Greece, Turkey = Western bloc
• Truman Doctrine (1947) said US would aid countries threatened by communism (containment) - Western bloc formed military alliance NATO for this
  • In response, Eastern bloc formed Warsaw Pact
• Two alliances became heavily weaponized - line between them was called the Iron Curtain
• Many countries were part of nonalignment - accepted investments from US and USSR but didn’t side with either
• Bandung Conference (1955): leaders from Africa and Asia meet to discuss these partnerships - Non-Aligned Movement
• After fall of Manchu Dynasty in 1911, Sun Yat-sen led the Chinese Revolution of 1911 for China to become more Westernized and powerful
• US helped drive Japan out, but communists and KMT continued to fight Chinese Civil War for next 4 years
• Communists recruited millions of peasants under Mao Zedong to drive KMT out of China into Taiwan (where they established Republic of China)
• Mainland China became People’s Republic of China and the largest communist nation in the world]
• At first was successful in increasing China’s productivity and agriculture
• Implemented Great Leap Forward by creating communes (local governments) to achieve a Marxist state - they couldn’t keep up with their agricultural quotas, so they lied about it causing starvation of over 30 million Chinese people

Deng Xiaoping

• New leader - focused on restructuring economy, reimplemented education
• Free-market capitalism elements, property ownership, foreign relations - but still largely communist
• Tiananmen Square Massacre: hundreds of protesters for democratic reform killed by government troops

Deng Xiaoping

• New leader - focused on restructuring economy, reimplemented education
• Free-market capitalism elements, property ownership, foreign relations - but still largely communist
• Tiananmen Square Massacre: hundreds of protesters for democratic reform killed by government troops
• North Korea attacked South Korea in 1950 to unite the two countries - United Nations, under General MacArthur, supported South Korea and China supported North Korea - armistice didn’t happen until 1953
• North Korea remains an isolated and dangerous nation today
• fter WWII, France attempt to hold on to colony of Indochina, but Vietminh nationalists fought back until it was agreed to split the nation into two
  • Communists - North under Ho Chi Minh
  • Democrats - South under Ngo Dinh Diem
• Soon war broke out between them - France and US supported South, but eventually the South was taken over by communist Viet Cong fighters, which looked very bad for US

Genocide in Cambodia

• Communism took over Cambodia and communist faction Khmer Rouge took over the government - goal to get rid of professional class an religious minorities led to 2 million deaths by the government
• US supported the Batista Dictatorship from 1939 to 1959 until peasants began revolting in 1956 under leadership of Fidel Castro - led to Cuban Revolution in 1959
• US imposed economic bans on trade with Cuba - strengthened Cuba’s ties with Soviets instead
• US organized Bay of Pigs Invasion with a small force of Cuban exiles, authorized by President Kennedy, to overthrow Castro - they were immediately captured
• In response, Soviets installed missiles in Cuba and when US found out, they established a navel blockade around the island - Cuban Missile Crisis
  • Soviets eventually backed down when US agreed to not invade Cuba - closest brush with nuclear war

US distracted by wars and Cold War led to single-party rule in Mexico, brutal militaristic leaders in Argentina and Chile, and socialist democracies in Nicaragua and Guatemala

• US focused on Nicaragua - ground for Bay of Pigs Invasion, targeting of Sandinista guerrillas in 80s
• People in Eastern Europe, under communism, began to revolt over poor living conditions compared to the West, democracy, and self-determination in the 80s
• Decline of communism in Soviet bloc led to East Germany cutting ties with Soviets
• Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and East and West reunified
• Germany now focused on peace and economic reform instead of violence
• Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1986 and urged restructuring of Soviet economy - elements of private ownership instituted, nuclear arms treaties with US
• Mostly peaceful, but ethnic cleansing occurred in the Balkans and many Muslims were murdered by Christian Serbians - led to UN troop involvement
• New Russia looked like a perfect federal state, but their abrupt intro to democracy and capitalism led to corruption, high unemployment, poverty, widespread crime
• First president, Boris Yeltsin, had the challenge of reforming Russia
• ndian National Congress, mostly Hindu, established in 1885 and Muslim League in 1906 to increase rights of Indians under colonial rule
• In 1919, Amritsar Massacre catapulted resistance - 319 Indians killed by the British during a peaceful protest
• Mohandas Gandhi became an important figure in resistance - philosophy of passive resistance (demonstrations, boycotts instead of violence)
• British separated the subcontinent into three parts: India (Hindu), and Pakistan (Muslim) in two parts
• Many died by religious persecution as they migrated across religious lines - created international conflict between Pakistan and India
• in 1912, the African National Congress was formed to oppose European colonialism
• Gamal Nasser, general in Egyptian army, overthrew Egypt king and established a republic
• Algeria fought war for independence against France from 1954-1962
• Nigeria and Ghana negotiated their freedom from Britain
• Kenya also negotiated constitution with Britain
• Angola and Belgian Congo overthrew colonial governments causing civil wars
• Zimbabwe was among last to establish majority African rule in 1980
• 53/54 of African nations belong to African Union - replaced Organization of African Unity
  • Still, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, Somalia, Rwanda, Congo continue to be wrecked by civil wars

Rwanda

• Conflict between Tutsi and Hutu groups (Tutsi, 15% of pop., governed the Hutu) caused ethnic strife, genocide, and human rights violations after colonial authorities left
• Union of South Africa formed in 1910 combing British and Dutch colonies, the year after South Africa Act, completely excluded Black people from politics
• Nelson Mandela became leader of African National Congress in 1950s determined to abolish apartheid
• Sharpeville massacre: 67 protesters against apartheid killed - African National Congress then supported guerrilla warfare (resulted in Mandela being jailed in 1964)
• Many Jews left Israel region as Palestine became more and more Islamic
• During WWI, Zionists (Jewish nationalists) convinced Arthur Balfour (Britain’s foreign secretary) to issue Balfour Declaration of 1917 - declared that Jewish people had right to live in Palestine, without displacing current Palestinians

ewish Wait for a State Ends in 1948 - two Palestines, one for Jews and one for Muslims, officially created

• As soon as David Ben-Gurion became first prime minister of Israel, Muslims attacked Israel (1948 Arab-Israeli War)
• Israel fought back and eventually controlled most of Palestine, while Jordan held remaining portions (West Bank)
• 1967 Six-Day War resulted in Israelis taking over all of Palestine - West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip (Egypt), Golan Heights (Syria)
• Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt n 1960s, rights of women increased drastically which angered Islamic fundamentalists
• President Jimmy Carter of US visited Iran to congratulate them on their modernization, which was the breaking point for fundamentalists
• Human rights advancements were reversed and women went back to traditional roles - Qu’ran became basis of legal system
• Iraq soon after invaded Iran over border disputes - Iraq received quiet support from US but still led to 8-year Iran-Iraq War
• Middle East was sitting on more than two-thirds of world’s oil reserves
• Multinational corporations rushed to gain drilling rights in 20th century
• Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, and Iraq started to earn billions annually, so they organized with some oil-exporting nations to form a petroleum cartel (OPEC) leading to more money and modernization
• Camp David Accords - a huge blow to Palestinians (did not recognize West Bank in accords) Egypt recongized Israel’s right to exist

Unit 9

Review