Part2Carboyhydrates

Page 1: Macromolecules - Part 2 Carbohydrates

• Overview of carbohydrates as essential macromolecules in biology.

Page 2: Nutrition Facts

Serving Information

• Serving Size: 216 g

• Calories: 590 (Calories from Fat: 306)

Daily Value Percentages

• Total Fat: 34g (52%)

• Saturated Fat: 11g (55%)

• Cholesterol: 85mg (28%)

• Sodium: 1070mg (45%)

• Total Carbohydrate: 47g (16%)

• Dietary Fiber: 3g (12%)

• Sugars: 8g

• Protein: 24g

Vitamins and Minerals

• Vitamin A: 6%

• Vitamin C: 6%

• Calcium: 30%

• Iron: 25%

• Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet.

Page 3: Summary of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source for organisms.

• Producers: Plants and autotrophs synthesize carbohydrates.

• Consumers: Animals and heterotrophs utilize carbohydrates and release carbon dioxide.

Monomer and Polymer Forms

• Monosaccharide: Basic building block of carbohydrates.

• Glucose is a key monosaccharide that can form pyruvate for ATP production in mitochondria.

• Carbohydrates can exist as:

  • Monosaccharides (1 unit)

  • Disaccharides (2 units)

  • Polysaccharides (multiple units)

• Types of polysaccharides include:

  • Alpha carbohydrates (starch, glycogen)

  • Beta carbohydrates (cellulose, chitin, peptidoglycan)

Page 4: Energy and Storage from Carbohydrates

• Photosynthesis: Plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates.

• Energy conversion processes include:

  • Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + sunlight → O2 + (CH2O)

  • Energy Storage in forms of glucose, starch, glycogen, and fats.

• Cellular Respiration: Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi → CO2 + H2O + ATP

Page 5: Structure of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates comprise carbon, hydrogen, and hydroxyl groups.

• Key structural features:

  • Carbonyl (C=O) group

  • Hydroxyl (-OH) groups

  • High-energy C–H bonds

• General formula: (CH2O)n

  • Example: Glucose (C6H12O6)

Page 6: Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides vary based on the number of carbons in their structure.

• They can spontaneously form ring structures in solution.

Page 7: Forms of Glucose

• Glucose (monosaccharide) exists in three forms:

  • Linear form (rare)

  • α-glucose ring

  • β-glucose ring

Page 8: α-glucose and β-glucose

• The orientation of hydroxyl groups differentiates α and β forms.

• Stability: β-glucose is more common due to stability.

Page 9: Energy Utilization from Glucose

• During cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to convert stored energy into usable forms (ATP).

• Mitochondria are the organelles responsible for ATP production from glucose.

Page 10: Glycosidic Linkages

• Monosaccharides link through covalent bonds known as glycosidic linkages.

• Types of glycosidic linkages:

  • α-glycosidic linkage

  • β-glycosidic linkage

• Example of disaccharides formed via these linkages: Maltose, Lactose.

Page 11: Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Structures

• Lactose example involves a combination of glucose and galactose through glycosidic linkages.

• Polysaccharides formed by repeated units of monosaccharides:

  • a-1,4-glycosidic linkages

  • Unbranched structures (e.g., amylose)

Page 12: Function of α-glucose and β-glucose

• α-glucose chains: Store chemical energy.

• β-glucose chains: Form fibrous structures, including cell walls in many organisms.

Page 13: Types of Polysaccharides

1. Starch

   • Highly branched helices of α-glucose.

   • Stores energy for plants.

2. Glycogen

   • Energy storage in animals (liver and muscles).

Page 14: Structural Functions of β-glucose Chains

• β-glucose chains: Have straight chains with hydrogen bonds, making them difficult to hydrolyze.

• Examples include cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan which provide structural support in cell walls.

Page 15: Summary Table of Polysaccharides

Polysaccharide Structures

• Chitin: Used for support in fungi and exoskeletons of insects/crustaceans.

• Peptidoglycan: Provides structural support in bacterial cell walls.

Page 16: Summary of Key Concepts

• Carbohydrates are crucial for energy storage and utilization in organisms.

• Plants synthesize carbohydrates; animals consume them and produce CO2.

• Core structures include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides differentiated by their bonding and functional properties.

Alpha and beta carbohydrates are types of sugars that differ based on how a specific chemical group (the hydroxyl group) is arranged.

1. Alpha Carbohydrates (α): In alpha sugars, the hydroxyl group on the first carbon is placed below the ring structure. This form is commonly found in energy-storing sugars like starch and glycogen.

2. Beta Carbohydrates (β): In beta sugars, the hydroxyl group on the first carbon is positioned above the ring structure. This form is found in structural sugars like cellulose, which helps support plants.

In simple terms, the main difference is that alpha forms