AP World Final (6.9.2025)

Reformation

• In the Catholic Church, bishops could only rule in one place.

• Erasmus laid the foundation of the revolution. He was able to do so because of the printing press.

• Martin Luther was the accidental revolutionary lawyer monk. He was the founder of the revolution.

-His parents wanted him to be a lawyer, but he wanted to be a monk so he used religion to guide him with laws.

• Why Did People Protect Martin Luther?

-They agreed with his call for Church reform

-German princes wanted more power and less control from the Pope

-He had strong local support, especially from Prince Frederick

-People believed in freedom to read and interpret the Bible

-Money

• Martin Luther’s ideas:

-He was against the selling of indulgences (He confronted John Tutzel about the selling of indulgences.)

-Salvation can be achieved through the grace of god alone

-Good works do not grant salvation

-Christians must have faith in God

-He rejected the Catholic Church because the bible is the only authority

-Anyone should be able to read the bible in any vernacular language (He translated the bible from Latin to German. This was important because it wasn’t translated before because the Church did not want normal people to interpret it.)

• Martin Luther spread these ideas through his 95 theses. The 95 theses was a public criticism of the Catholic Church.

-When faced by court, he did not take his ideas back because that would have added to the tyranny.

• Diet of Worms (1521): Luther was excommunicated because of his 95 theses. It was in response to the turmoil caused by the ideas of Luther and other Protestants.

• Council of Trent: Meetings in response to the Catholic Church Reform and Protestant Movement.

• Results of Luther/Protestants:

-The Protestant Reformation led to schism in the Church and wars.

-People breaking away forced the church to do something.

-The council rejected most of the Protestant ideology. Salvation was only attained through the Catholic church.

• Ignasius Loyola was the founder of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits.) He was an important member of reformation and of the modernization of the catholic church.

• Ignasius disagreed with:

-Sola scriptura (Bible alone as authority)

-Sola fide (faith alone for salvation)

-He believed both faith and good works were needed for salvation

-Opposed the rejection of Church tradition and papal authority

• However, Ignasius believed in reforming the Catholic Church instead of breaking away from it.

Review Questions:

• Describe the reasons why Martin Luther began a spiritual revolt against the Roman Catholic Church

-Martin Luther did not believe in the selling of indulgences

-Differently from the Catholic Church, Martin Luther believed that salvation is a gift from God for those who are faithful.

• Describe Luther’s main beliefs regarding Christianity

-He was against the selling of indulgences 

-Salvation can be achieved through the grace of god alone

-Good works do not grant salvation

-Christians must have faith in God

-He rejected the Catholic Church because the bible is the only authority

-Anyone should be able to read the bible in any vernacular language 

• Why was Luther’s reformation movement successful?

Martin Luther had a lot of support. People protected him because: 

-They agreed with his call for Church reform

-German princes wanted more power and less control from the Pope

-He had strong local support, especially from Prince Frederick

-People believed in freedom to read and interpret the Bible

-Money

-His ideas appealed to all classes

-The printing press helped to spread his ideas

• How did the Catholic Church respond to the Protestant Reformation?

-The Catholic Church rejected a lot of Protestant ideology. 

-Salvation was only obtained through the Catholic Church.

-Meetings such as the Diet of Worms and the Council of Trent were held in response to the Protestant Reformation.

-Censorship and Punishment: The Church censored works that went against Catholic teachings.

-Architecture: They built big, beautiful churches in order to spread catholicism.

Age of Exploration

• The Age of Exploration is characterized by European exploration of the Atlantic.

• The Age of Exploration began for multiple reasons:

-The Ottoman capture of Constantinople allowed them to control the Mediterranean, Red and Black Sea. This caused Europeans to look westward at the Atlantic.

-Europeans were driven by hopes of profit, curiosity and religion (less so religion.) European mariners began setting out from the Iberian Peninsula to explore the Atlantic.

-Technologies like Lateen Sails, astrolabes and compasses made these journeys possible.

-Christopher Columbus found himself in America while searching for India.

• Northern Christian Spanish kingdoms captured much of the Iberian Peninsula (reconquista.) It was marked by religious crusading and divine justification. 

• Vasco de Gama:

-From Portugal

-Met the leader of Calicut (India). The leader did not have goods like gold and silver, but he did have a lot of spices.

-He was the first person to make the trip to India.

-Vasco de Gama’s sale of spices back in Portugal generated mass amounts of wealth (almost enough to reimburse the trip 300 times)

• Christopher Columbus:

-Italian explorer and navigator 

-Completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean under the sponsorship of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.

-They miscalculated how big the world was so he went west and ended up in the Americas. He landed in the Bahamas (he called it "San Salvador") and explored parts of the Caribbean, including present-day Cuba and Hispaniola. He believed he had reached the outskirts of Asia.

-His voyages initiated the Columbian Exchange

-Indigenous civilizations, such as the Incas and Aztecs were destroyed, and many diseases were spread to them. 

-Generated mass amounts of wealth

• Columbus’s voyages were a major step towards the modern global economy.

-Shifted the world’s economic center from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic.

-Fueled European mercantilism and capitalism.

-Made global trading networks more expansive.

• Catholic missionaries spread Christianity across the Americas.

• Afonso de Albuquerque was a Portuguese general, admiral, and empire builder. He played a crucial role in establishing Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean and helped build the foundation of the Portuguese Empire in Asia.

-He was often regarded as one of the greatest naval commanders of the Age of Exploration.

-Albuquerque's military campaigns were aimed at controlling key maritime chokepoints and trade routes between Europe and Asia.

-He controlled trade routes (especially spice trade), established a Portuguese maritime empire rather than colonized inland, promoted Christianity, sometimes with tolerance, sometimes with force.

• Cortes:

-Spanish expeditionist (conquistador)

-He conquered Cuba.

-He was a noble but was not from a wealthy family

-Originally, the Cuban governor was going to let Cortes go on an exploration to Mexico. However, before the mission, he changed his mind and forbade him from going. Despite this, Cortes got about 500 men to set off on the illegal journey to Mexico.

• Expedition to Tenochtitlan:

-Coincidently, they met a lot of people that spoke the local languages, which was very beneficial.

-Cortes’s army grew because they allied with enemies of the Aztecs.

-The more they expanded, the more people joined their army, leading to a cycle. 

-Governor Velazquez of Cuba sent troops to arrest Cortes, but Cortes defeated them and implemented them into his army.

• Impacts of Cortes’s Conquest:

-Collapse of the Aztecs

-Spain gained lots of wealth

-Diseases were spread of Indigenous people, taking out mass amounts of their population. 

Review Questions: 

• Why were Europeans motivated to explore the Atlantic in the late 15th and early 16th centuries?

The Ottomans controlled the Mediterranean so Europeans looked westward for expansion. They were motivated by economic gain, expansion, glory (prestige) and spreading Christianity.

• Describe the Portuguese strategy for trying to break into Indian Ocean trade. Which groups would have been most threatened by their actions? (read in your textbook)

• Identify: Vasco de Gama, Alfonso de Albuquerque, and Christopher Columbus

-Vasco de Gama was a Portuguese explorer and was the first European to make a trip to India. He traded for spices, which became extremely profitable back in Europe. 

-Alfonso de Albuquerque was also a Portuguese explorer. He was known for laying the foundation of the Portuguese empire in Asia. He spread Christianity and established trade routes.

-Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer known for venturing into the Americas despite his attempts to go to India. His voyages generated mass wealth and destroyed Indigenous empires. His voyages also initiated the Columbian exchange.

• Describe the circumstances that led Hernan Cortes to venture into the interior of the Aztec empire. What factors contributed to his success? 

-Hernan Cortes had conquered Cuba, and their governor granted him permission to expand into Mexico. However, before his mission, the governor ended up forbaying him from going, but he gathered an army and still went. Enemies of the Aztecs joined his army, which was increasing, allowing him to take over more land. The governor sent an army after him, but Cortes defeated them and integrated them into his army. He eventually defeated the Aztecs. He was able to succeed because of his large army, superior technology, Aztec internal weakness and exposure to diseases.

Mayans

• El Mirador was the largest Mayan city. 

-It had great architecture and advanced water storage.

• Mayans used stone weapons/swords as opposed to iron or steel.

• Maize (corn) became the most important crop in Mayan civilization.

-They found a process to produce corn faster, but it produced niacin, a deadly substance.

• Writing system: The Mayan writing system was symbolic and phonetic. It was based upon the Cholan language.

• Mayans had to adapt to the rainforest environment.

-They used systems such as a sustainable slash and burn technique and terrace farming.

• Mayan sites were long underdeveloped with many ruins untouched due to a lack of funding for restoration.

• The Mayans were not united under one empire. Instead, they were divided into different city-states because of geography and a lack of centralized authority.

-However, the city states did share culture and language.

-Certain areas still speak Mayan, highlighting their impact.

• Originally, historians thought that many vacant buildings were temples and that people lived elsewhere. However, the Tikal Project disproved this because there were inhabitants living around the temples. This shows that Mayan cities were inhabited urban centers, not just religious sites.

Review Questions:

• Describe major features of Mayan Civilization

• Agriculture (corn, beans, squash)

• Deeply religious-worshipped nature gods: the sun, moon, corn, 

• Built great stone buildings, pyramid temples, advanced architecture and art

• Worked gold and copper

• Pottery

• Mathematics

• Calendar systems

• A writing system with a mix of symbols and phonetics

• Split into different city-states 

• Stone weaponry

• Had to adapt to the rainforest environment

Aztecs

• The Aztecs were a nomadic tribe that rapidly rose to power after the fall of the Toltecs.

-They migrated to Lake Texcoco in groups of 10,000 people. 

-They rose to power by using political anarchy to penetrate the area of sedentary agricultural people.

• Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Aztec empire.

• The Aztecs had a reputation of tough warriors and human sacrificers, making them valued and feared.

-They used sacrifices to enforce fear and remain in control.

• The Aztecs spoke Nahuatl.

-The Toltecs also spoke Nahuatl, making their rise to power more accepted.

• The Aztecs got their food through chinampas, an artificial island built on a lake. They also got food through tributes from conquered lands.

• They relied heavily on human labor (unlike Europeans who used animal and water power.)

-They were allowed up to 4 harvests per year.

• Aztecs used human sacrifice for religious purposes. Sacrifice increased during times of war, and expanded in the post-classic period of militarism. 

• Women helped in fields and households, but they had the same legal rights as men.

• Expansion & Control:

-Superseded local regions partly by force; killed local leaders to take control

-Built infrastructure like aqueducts

-Population reached about 10 million at their peak

• Leaders:

-Manco Capac: First king and founder of Tenochtitlán (capital city)

-Montezuma (Moctezuma): Expanded the empire’s borders significantly. However, the Aztecs collapsed soon after his reign. He had disputes with Spanish conquistadors.

• Infrastructure:

-Built advanced canal and road systems

• The Aztecs had an alliance of city-states called the “Triple Alliance.” This allowed the Aztecs to control vast amounts of power across Mexico. 

• According to legend, the Aztecs were created by the Sun God.

Review Questions: 

• Describe major features of the Aztec Civilization

-Spoke Nahuatl, which helped their rule become more accepted

-Use of chinampas

-Heavily used human sacrifice

-Women had the same legal rights as men

-Relied on human labor

-Strong military, large population

Incas

• The Incas spanned from Modern day Colombia to Chile, and from Bolivia to Northern Argentina. They controlled 9-13 million people.

It was at its peak under Huayna Capac. 

• The Incas expanded because male descendants went on conquests to ensure wealth and land in order to have a good afterlife.

-There was also a religious aspect, as they needed more land for resting places.

-They were driven by strong military organization and effective administration

• The Incas were divided into 4 provinces. Each province was ruled by a governor with a state government.

-However, the Incas were susceptible to civil war because the 4 governors had disagreements.

• The Incas spread their language (Quechua) in order to integrate the empire.

• The Incas used knotted strings (Quipu) in order to record numbers.

• The Incas provided roads and manipulated people into labor in order to improve transportation, irrigation and construction.

• Challenges:

-Vulnerable to civil war due to competing centers of power and large population.

-Civil war between Atahualpa and Huáscar, the last heirs, weakened the empire.

• The Incas fell due to increased military conflicts, exposure to diseases from Europeans (specifically smallpox) as well as interactions from Spanish conquistadors. 

Review Questions:

• Describe the major features of Incan civilization

-Location: Present day Andes Mountains

-Government: Used a system of messengers and roads to control territory. Split into 4 provinces

-Religion: Many gods, performed sacrifices

-Agriculture: Terrace farming on mountains, irrigation systems

-Architecture: Famous for stonework (Machu Picchu)

-Achievements: Vast road system, Quipus, Strong medicine

-Problems: Internal issues, Wars, Diseases

-They used their language (Quechua) to unite the empire

African Slave Trade

• Slavery existed in Africa prior to the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

-Power in Africa did not come from owning land. Instead, it came from owning slaves because they made that land productive. 

-Most slaves came from war captives, criminals and individuals that were expelled from clans.

• Islamic Slave Trade: Muslim merchants sought African slaves. They often forced them into servitude. They transported slaves across the Sahara to be distributed in the Mediterranean and across the Indian Ocean.

• Background of the Slave Trade:

-In the 15th century, Portuguese mariners began to explore the Atlantic Ocean.

-They found islands (like the Canary Islands) that allowed for sugar and grape cultivation.

• Reasons for the start of the Slave Trade: 

-Europeans had relied on Native Americans for labor, but many died due to disease. As a result, Europeans saw Africans as a source of labor.

-It was easier for Europeans to get African slaves because slavery was already integrated into the society.

-The Portuguese wanted gold from Africa.

-People could purchase enormous amounts of cheap land for plantations.

• Why Africans?

-Geography/Wind Patterns (West Africa is close to Brazil)

-Disease Resistance

-Pre existing slave trade

-They were excellent farmers

-Different skin colors makes slaves easily identifiable

-Hard for them to revolt

• Europeans usually traded for slaves instead of capturing them for many reasons.

-They were scared to go into the African interior because they could contract malaria.

-The Portuguese tried to capture Africans but they often faced resistance.

-However, sometimes Europeans did force Africans into slavery.

• The Portuguese began the Atlantic Slave Trade and it started out small.

-They faced resistance while capturing slaves, leading them to purchase them instead.

-Sugar planters relied on slave labor.

-As the Portuguese began to rely on slave labor, the Spanish, Caribbean and the Americas wanted them too.

-Overall, slaves came to the new world because Europeans sought labor help and often had to support large numbers.

• The Triangular Trade was an exchange between Europe, Africa and the Americas.

-The Triangular Trade started off in the 16th century and ended during the 19th century.

• In the first leg of the Triangular Trade, Europe gave Africa manufactured goods in exchange for slaves. In the second leg, these slaves were transported to the Americas. In the Americas, slaves produced raw materials. In the third leg, these raw materials were transported to Europe.

-Europe often gave Africa firearms during the trade.

• The slaves were transported to the Americas through the Middle Passage. The Middle Passage was a journey across the Atlantic where the Europeans transported slaves in terrible conditions.

-About 25% of slaves died. The conditions were so terrible that many tried to starve themselves.

-The ships were extremely cramped, they were treated very inhumanely and diseases were spread.

• The slave trade was very inhumane because Europeans forced Africans into slavery and took away their rights.

• From the 1600s and beyond, slavery had an extreme impact on the world because about 20 million slaves were sent to the western hemisphere.

-Slavery increased during this time because more Europeans settled west.

• African countries that sold slaves profited greatly. However, several African societies suffered severe losses due to their deep population decline.

-Kingdoms such as Ashanti and Dahomey became extremely wealthy.

• Most slaves were young men because of their physical abilities. This prevented reproduction in the Americas, furthering the cycle of the slave trade because plantation owners looked to Africa for more slaves.

-The slaves who were women took on household roles.

-Since there were more women than men in the homelands, women often took on male roles.

• Some slaves worked as urban laborers or domestic servants, but most did agricultural labor on plantations.

• Sugar, rice, cotton, tobacco, molasses and coffee were all cash crops from slave labor in the Americas.

-Cash crops are agricultural products that are sold because of their high value.

• Plantations: Plantations were established on fertile lands and generated a lot of wealth. Their purpose was to specialize in the production of a highly desired crop. There were some regional differences, and some were more vulnerable to diseases than others.

• Slave labor was crucial to the development of American societies.

-Slaves introduced African foods to Caribbean/American societies.

• While slaves kept parts of their culture, European and American cultures and languages were often forced upon them.

-However, they did often keep their religion.

-They also used music to provide a sense of home and also a distraction.

• Western African countries were more susceptible to slavery because they were closer to slave ports. The slave trade promoted turmoil and wars in the Western African countries,

-These countries received firearms (and gold and silver) from Europe, allowing them to engage in wars.

-They often used these firearms to capture slaves from unarmed areas, which could begin disputes.

• Slaves begin to resist authorities in multiple ways.

-Slaves revolted.

-Slaves ran away.

-Slaves worked slowly.

-Freed slaves often published works on slavery.

• The Triangular Trade ended because it was no longer beneficial.

-Slave revolts made slavery expensive and dangerous.

-Increased Caribbean sugar forced Europeans to lower sugar prices but slave prices increased.

-New moral and religious ideas opposed slavery. (The American and French Revolutions promoted life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness and equality, making the ethics behind slavery become questioned.)

Review Questions:

• Describe the fundamental structure of the Atlantic slave trade

-Manufactured goods from Europe were traded to Africa in exchange for slaves. These slaves were then transported to the Americas/Caribbean to perform labor. The raw materials from the slave labor were then exported to Europe. 

• Why did the Atlantic slave trade greatly expand after the arrival of Europeans in the Caribbean, Central America and South America? 

-Indigenous people were exposed to European diseases, causing many of them to die off. As a result, Europeans sought a different source of labor, which they found in Africa.

• What were some of the major goods that were traded in the Atlantic “Triangular trade”

-Sugar

-Molasses

-Tobacco

-Coffee

-Cotton

Columbian Exchange

• The Columbian Exchange was the global diffusion of plants, crops, animals, populations and diseases between the Old World and the New World.

-These diseases took tolls on populations in the Americas and Pacific Islands. 

-The Aztecs declined because of smallpox, allowing the Spanish to take over.

-This led to mass populations migrating.

-European merchants became extremely popular in the Indian Ocean basin. 

-Animals, like those with fur and ivory, became increasingly desired.

• Despite spreading diseases, over the long term, the exchange led to an increase in the human population because of all of the food it provided.

• Europeans established a global trading system. Trade was established between the Americas, Europe and Africa through the Atlantic Ocean.

-By the late 16th century, humans were able to exploit nature and agricultural resources.

-Trade brought American crops to the Sub-Saharan desert. American foods provided nutrients, allowing the European population to rapidly increase.

-English, Dutch, French and other populations helped to develop global trade. By 1750, all parts of the world, except Australia, were interlinked through trading networks. 

• Manila galleons were ships in the Pacific Ocean basin that were used for trade.

Review Questions: 

• Define the term Columbian Exchange:

The Columbian Exchange was the global trade of plants, animals, crops, ideas and diseases. The Columbian Exchange connected the Old World to the New World, with trade everywhere except for Australia. The Columbian Exchange was the first time that the whole world was linked. The Columbian Exchange followed the Age oF Exploration started by Chrstopher Columbus and other Europeans.

• Why did old world Eurasian/Africans often have more deadly diseases than people from the new world?

Europeans lived densely and in close proximity to many animals. This allowed for the spread of many diseases. However, since they were exposed to it, they developed resistance. When the Europeans and Africans came to the Americas, the Native Americans were not exposed to these diseases, putting them at great risk.