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Indigenous Psychology in Australia – Comprehensive Study Notes

History and Cultures of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

  • Two overarching Indigenous groups - Aboriginal peoples (mainland & Tasmania)

    • Torres Strait Islander peoples (about 100 islands between Cape York & Papua New Guinea; about 20 inhabited)

  • Population (Census 2016) - Total Indigenous: 798,400 (3.3% of Australian population)

    • Aboriginal only: 727,500 (91%)

    • Torres Strait Islander only: 38,700 (5%)

    • Both identities: 32,200 (4%)

  • Age & residence - Median age Indigenous 23 years vs non-Indigenous 38 years

    • about 37.4% live in major cities, 24% inner regional, 20% outer regional, 6.7% remote, 11.9% very remote

  • Traditional Aboriginal culture - At least 50,000 years’ occupation; about 260 languages & 800 dialects pre-contact (about 120 remain).

    • Spirituality: The Dreaming/Dreamtime → creation narratives, sacred geography, kinship obligations

    • Seasonal hunter-gatherers; land viewed communally (“people belong to Country”)

    • Complex social organisation: classificatory kinship, Elders, gendered roles, reciprocity; law/lore oral & enforced

    • Art integral (rock, bark, body, ochres); ceremonies, dance, didgeridoo

  • Traditional Torres Strait Islander culture - Melanesian ethnicity; independent island clans led by Elders

    • Subsistence: fishing, gardening, seafaring trade (dugouts, star navigation)

    • “Ailan Kastom” = holistic spiritual–secular unity; ancestral spirits embodied in land/sea

    • Two languages + widespread Torres Strait Creole; cultural transmission via feasts, song-dance, tombstone opening rites

    • Art utilitarian (weaving, masks, canoe decoration)

  • European colonisation impacts - 1788 terra nullius claim → dispossession, massacres, introduced disease, forced missions/reserves

    • Protectionism → segregation (1840s-1950s), blood-quantum classifications

    • Assimilation era (1950s-1970s) inc. Stolen Generations: 1/10 to 1/3 children removed (1910s-1970s)

    • Activism milestones: 1965 Freedom Ride, 1966 Wave Hill walk-off, 1967 referendum (more than 90% yes), 1972 Tent Embassy, 1992 Mabo native-title decision, 1996 Wik, 2008 National Apology

  • Contemporary identity - Diverse lifestyles (remote to urban) but common bonds: kinship, spirituality, shared history & humour

    • Self-identification definition: descent + self-identification + community acceptance

Influences on Mental Health & Wellbeing

Racism (Jones, 1997 framework)

  • Cultural racism: societal beliefs & stereotypes (e.g. welfare dependence) → internalised stigma

  • Individual racism: interpersonal discrimination, abuse

  • Institutional racism: systemic barriers (health, justice, education). - Eg. culturally unsafe health services → under-utilisation

  • Health impacts (Zubrick et al., 2014; Paradies et al., 2015) - Reduced access to resources, elevated stress, dysregulated immune/endocrine systems

    • Maladaptive coping (smoking, AOD), exposure to violence/justice system

Human-Rights Lens

  • UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007 (Articles 1–3, 21, 24, 34) - Rights to equality, self-determination, health & traditional medicine

  • Australia endorsed UNDRIP 2009 (after initial 2007 rejection)

  • Uluru Statement from the Heart 2017: Voice (to Parliament), Treaty/Makarrata, Truth-telling

  • Redfern Speech 1992 & 2008 National Apology acknowledged colonial harms

Determinants of Health

  • Social: education, employment, housing, justice

  • Historical: colonisation, Stolen Generations, policy trauma

  • Political: land rights, governance, representation

  • Cultural determinants (Brown 2013): self-determination, language, Country, lore/law, freedom from discrimination

Indigenous Psychology in Australia

  • Global decolonising movement: rejects Western hegemony; promotes locally derived psychologies (APA Indigenous Task Force 2010)

  • APS Apology 2016: acknowledges psychology’s complicity in colonisation & commits to reform

  • Key national reports building Indigenous mental-health paradigms: - 1978 Alma Ata Declaration (PHC & equity)

    • 1989 National Aboriginal Health Strategy

    • 1991 Royal Commission Into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody

    • 1993 Burdekin Report

    • 1995 Ways Forward (9 guiding principles; holistic SEWB; self-determination)

    • 1997 Bringing Them Home

    • 2005 Social Justice Report (Close the Gap call)

    • 2014 Working Together texts

    • 2016 ATSISPEP

    • 2021 Make Healing Happen (Healing Foundation)

Core Frameworks & Models

Social & Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB) Model (Gee et al., 2014)

  • 7 inter-related domains: 1. Connection to Body

    1. Mind & Emotions

    2. Family & Kinship

    3. Community

    4. Culture

    5. Country/Land

    6. Spirituality & Ancestors

  • Mental health = 1 component; wellness arises when domains are balanced

  • Table 3.2 risk/protective factors: e.g. chronic disease vs good diet/exercise; racism vs strong identity; family violence vs stable kin networks; language threat vs cultural revitalisation

Dance of Life (Milroy 2006)

  • Five concentric, interactive dimensions: Biological/Physical, Psychological/Emotional, Social, Spiritual, Cultural

  • Healing occurs when dimensions regain balance; informs WA Health & Wellbeing Framework 2015-2030

Intergenerational Trauma & Healing (Milroy et al., 2014)

  • Three trauma themes: loss of power, profound grief/disconnection, pervasive hopelessness

  • Recovery domains: 1) Self-determination & governance; 2) Reconnection & community life; 3) Restoration & resilience (figure 3.9)

Best-Practice Research & Ethics

NHMRC Guidelines (2018)

  • Six core values: Spirit & Integrity, Cultural Continuity, Equity, Reciprocity, Respect, Responsibility

AIATSIS Code of Ethics 2020

  • Four principles & responsibilities: - Indigenous Self-determination (rights, engagement, consent, cultural capability)

    • Indigenous Leadership (Indigenous-led, perspectives, data sovereignty)

    • Impact & Value (benefit/reciprocity, risk management)

    • Sustainability & Accountability (Country, ongoing governance, transparent reporting)

Aboriginal Participatory Action Research (APAR)

  • Indigenous Standpoint + Indigenous Knowledge Systems → Indigenous Research Methodologies

  • Characteristics: community-driven questions, Indigenous governance, co-researchers, strengths focus, local dissemination

Community Control & Governance Examples

  • Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations (ACCHOs): 1st est. Redfern 1971; now 144 services nationwide (map). Provide holistic, culturally safe PHC.

  • Closing the Gap partnership refresh 2020: four priority reforms (formal partnerships, build ACC sector, transform gov’t orgs, shared data)

  • COVID-19 response – Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander COVID-19 Advisory Group with NACCHO: early travel restrictions, language resources, PH workforce prep → less than 1% of Australian cases, 0 Indigenous deaths in first year (contrast USA Indigenous 3.5 times mortality)

  • ATSISPEP (2016): 12 roundtables, meta-eval of 69 programs; success factors include cultural reconnection, 24/7 supports, peer workforce, addressing social determinants; recommends Indigenous leadership, evaluation, culturally safe services

Education & Workforce Transformation

  • AIPEP (2013-16; AIPEP 2 in progress) - Decolonise psychology curricula → embed Indigenous knowledges

    • Increase Indigenous psychology students & workforce (only 0.7% of psychologists Indigenous; need about 1053 more for parity)

    • Build cultural capability of all practitioners

  • Dr Tracy Westerman Scholarship & Jilya Institute: grows Indigenous psychology pipeline

  • WA Aboriginal Procurement Policy 2018: employment & economic participation targets

Cultural Safety & Responsive Practice

  • Progression: cultural awareness → cultural sensitivity → cultural competence → cultural responsiveness → cultural safety (determined by client/community)

  • Principles (IAHA 2019): place culture central; lifelong reflective learning; relationship-focused; celebrate diversity; embed history & context; practise anti-racism

  • Practitioner actions (clinic scenario) - Welcoming signage & flags, community artwork, flexible appointment lengths, allow support persons

    • Use yarning, avoid jargon, validate lived experience of racism

    • Engage Elders, offer choice of worker, informed consent in plain language

    • Reflect on power dynamics, seek supervision, advocate systemic change

Numerical Disparities (Table 3.1 highlights)

  • Life expectancy 71.6 years (M) & 75.6 years (F) Indigenous vs 80.2 years & 83.4 years non-Indigenous

  • Adult overweight/obesity: 77% Indigenous vs 66% non-Indigenous

  • Year 12 completion (20-24 years): 66% vs 90%

  • Employment rate: 49% vs 76%

  • Mean equivalised weekly household income: $802 vs $1096

Key Take-Aways

  • Culture, land, spirituality & kinship are foundational to identity and wellbeing.

  • Colonisation inflicted intergenerational trauma; racism persists at cultural, institutional & individual levels.

  • Indigenous psychology demands epistemic pluralism, self-determination, human-rights frameworks & holistic SEWB models.

  • Evidence-based healing requires Indigenous governance, cultural reconnection, strengths focus, and culturally safe systems.

  • Transformative change in education, research ethics, health services and policy (Closing the Gap, Uluru Statement) is underway but ongoing.