Developmental final

Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Children

1. Authoritarian Parenting:

   • Strict, controlling, no room for flexibility.

   • "My way or the highway."

   • Can result in children who struggle with independent thinking and problem-solving.

   • May lead to issues like rebellion or a lack of self-confidence in children.

2. Authoritative Parenting:

   • Encourages independence and open communication.

   • Parents provide guidance but allow children to be part of decision-making.

   • Children tend to be more socially competent and better at problem-solving.

3. Permissive Parenting:

   • Very lenient, few rules or boundaries.

   • Children may struggle with self-control and understanding authority.

4. Neglectful/Disengaged Parenting:

   • Lack of involvement and emotional support.

   • Children may develop attachment issues and struggle with emotional regulation.

5. Effect of Parenting Styles:

   • Parenting styles can influence a child's cognitive and socioemotional development.

   • Authoritative style is generally linked to the healthiest outcomes, while authoritarian and permissive styles may lead to issues with emotional development or autonomy.

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

   • Focuses on sensory experiences and motor activities.

   • Key concept: Object permanence — understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight (e.g., peekaboo).

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

   • Children begin using symbols (e.g., words, images) to represent objects but lack logical reasoning.

   • Key concepts:

     • Egocentrism — difficulty in seeing things from others’ perspectives (e.g., “It’s mine!”).

     • Imaginative play (e.g., pretending to be someone else, such as a doctor or superhero).

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

   • Logical thinking emerges, but it's still tied to concrete objects and situations.

   • Children can perform operations like conservation (understanding that quantity doesn’t change just because shape changes).

   • Conservation — understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance (e.g., water poured into different-sized containers).

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years):

   • Abstract thinking, problem-solving, and hypothetical reasoning.

   • Adolescents can think about future possibilities and abstract concepts, including the consequences of actions.

5. Assimilation and Accommodation:

   • Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas (e.g., a child sees a horse and calls it a "dog").

   • Accommodation: Changing existing schemas to incorporate new experiences (e.g., realizing that the horse is not a dog, so the child creates a new category).

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

1. Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust

   • Development of trust based on consistent caregiving.

2. Early Childhood (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

   • Children develop independence and confidence when allowed to explore.

3. Preschool (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

   • Encouraging initiative leads to a sense of responsibility and leadership.

4. School Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority

   • Children learn skills and gain a sense of competence through accomplishments.

5. Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion

   • Teens explore and form their identity, which can affect their self-concept and relationships.

6. Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation

   • The ability to form deep, intimate relationships is key to emotional growth.

7. Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation

   • Adults contribute to society and future generations, or they may feel stagnant.

8. Late Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity vs. Despair

   • Reflecting on one’s life with a sense of fulfillment or regret.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Signs and Symptoms:

  • Early signs often appear before age 2.

  • Difficulty with social interactions, language delays, repetitive behaviors (e.g., hand-flapping, spinning objects).

  • Sensory sensitivities (e.g., to light, sound, or touch).

  • ASD is a lifelong condition but early intervention can improve outcomes.

Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

• Concrete Operational Stage:

  • Logical thinking emerges, but children still struggle with abstract concepts.

  • Key cognitive abilities: conservation, classification, seriation, and reversibility.

  • Children’s language development accelerates during this stage (up to 50,000 words by age 11).

• Cognitive Changes:

  • Middle childhood (ages 7-12) is a period of significant cognitive growth.

  • Children develop better problem-solving abilities and can understand cause-and-effect relationships.

Adolescent Development: Cognitive, Physical, and Social

• Cognitive Development:

  • Formal Operations: Ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.

  • Adolescent brain development leads to improved executive function, though risk-taking behavior is still common due to immature brain areas related to decision-making and impulse control.

• Physical Development:

  • Puberty begins (girls around age 10, boys around 12), triggering physical and hormonal changes.

  • Growth spurts, development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breast development, body hair).

• Social Development:

  • Peer pressure and social acceptance become central concerns.

  • Romantic relationships start to form, but communication and relationship skills are still developing.

Bullying

• Types of Bullying:

  • Physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying.

  • Effects: Can lead to long-term emotional and psychological harm, including depression and anxiety.

• Impact on Victims:

  • Increased risk of mental health issues, academic difficulties, and future relationship struggles.

  • Bullying can also affect the perpetrator's social and emotional development.

Child Abuse and Neglect

• Types of Abuse:

  • Physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect.

  • Consequences: Long-term effects on mental health, social relationships, and cognitive development.

  • Signs: Changes in behavior, unexplained injuries, withdrawal, fear of going home.

Gender Stereotypes and Socialization

• Gender Schemas: Mental representations of gender roles and expectations.

• Gender Socialization: The process by which children learn societal norms and behaviors associated with their gender.

• Gender Development:

  • Children can identify their gender by age 2-3.

  • Gender roles become more rigid in early childhood but may become more flexible during adolescence.

Adolescent Risk-Taking and Dating

• Risk-Taking: Adolescents engage in higher levels of risk-taking behavior due to hormonal changes and developing brain areas associated with impulse control.

• Dating:

  • Positive effects: Building social skills, learning about intimacy, and forming future relationship patterns.

  • Risks: Dating violence, unhealthy relationship dynamics, and early sexual activity.

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Types of Intelligence:

  1. Linguistic-verbal: Strong language skills (e.g., writers, speakers).

  2. Logical-mathematical: Good with numbers, patterns, and logical reasoning (e.g., scientists, mathematicians).

  3. Spatial: Good with visualizing and manipulating objects (e.g., artists, architects).

  4. Bodily-kinesthetic: Strong in physical coordination (e.g., athletes, dancers).

  5. Musical: Sensitivity to rhythm, tone, and music (e.g., musicians, composers).

  6. Interpersonal: Understanding and interacting with others (e.g., teachers, therapists).

  7. Intrapersonal: Self-awareness and introspection (e.g., psychologists, philosophers).

  8. Naturalistic: Understanding nature and living organisms (e.g., biologists, farmers).

  9. Existential: Understanding deep questions of existence (e.g., philosophers).