World History MidTerms

Geography Basics:

World Map 

Paleolithic Era: The Paleolithic Era, also known as the Stone Age, is the period from the evolution of human-like beings to around 9000 BCE when modern-day humans started to farm. Modern-day humans evolved around 250,000 BCE and then spread across the world in search of food. 

• During this time, humans did not live in villages, towns, or cities. Instead, they lived in small groups of less than 100 people and lived a nomadic lifestyle.  

  • Nomads are people who frequently move from place to place in search of food, never living in one place for very long. 

  • Paleolithic nomads were hunter-gatherers, meaning that they got their food from foraging, the act of finding food, and hunting or fishing. 

• Artifacts are objects made by humans like tools, buildings, weapons, art, pottery, and clothing that are usually found and studied by archaeologists. 

• Archaeology is the study of the past through what has been left behind. 

• Anthropology is the study of the origins and development of people and their society. 

Neolithic Era: 

• The Neolithic (or "New" Stone Age) was a period in human history that came after the start of agriculture and before the development of the first civilizations during which people started creating and using metal tools, called the “Bronze Age.”

• The Fertile Crescent is an important region in global history

  • It is located in modern-day Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Israel

  • Today much of the area is not productive for farming, but in the past, it was a region that was rich in agriculture

  • It includes the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and the Nile River valley.

• Some societies developed farming independently.

  • Fertile Crescent, an area in the Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which developed agriculture around 11,000 BCE

  • The Yangtze and Yellow River valleys in China (9000 BCE)

  • The highlands of New Guinea (9000-6000 BCE)

  • Northern South America (5000- 4000 BCE)

  • Central Mexico (5000-4000 BCE)

  • The eastern North America (4000-3000 BCE)

  • Sub-Saharan Africa (5000-4000 BCE)

• The process of exchanging goods and ideas is known as cultural diffusion

• After the Neolithic Revolution transformed life for people in the Fertile Crescent around 11,000 BCE,

  • Farming practices spread from here to North Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Europe. 

• A frieze is a horizontal decoration placed on a wall, usually near the ceiling.

• Catal Huyuk, in modern Turkey, was one of the first places in the world where humans lived in dense settlements. From about 7500 to 5700 BCE, an estimated average of between 5,000 and 8,000 people lived in mud-brick houses with rooftops serving as streets. 

• Within the villages, towns, and cities, it was possible for people to specialize in the sort of work they could do best. 

  • Many stopped producing food at all, making instead tools and other goods that farmers needed, and for which they gave them food in exchange. 

  • This process of exchange led to trade and traders, and the growth of trade made it possible for people to specialize even more

Ancient River Civilizations:

Egypt:

• Geography

• Heavily Relied on the Nile and without that would have not been able to survive

• The Nile had beneficial floods that allowed the farmers of Egypt to farm more efficiently

• The Nile led to the Mediterranean which was good for trade

• Because the Nile flowed south, invading forces could not enter Egypt from the Nile

• Religion

• Egyptians believed that the Pharaoh was a God on Earth

• They built large pyramids to encase the bodies of the Pharaohs after they die along with the family, select servants, and riches so they could live the same and prosperous life in the afterlife. They believed that they could bring all their possessions with them to the afterlife

• They believed that in the afterlife their hearts were weighed against a feather. If the feather was heavier than the heart they were considered to be a good person but if it was lighter they were considered to be a bad person.

• Advancements 

• Egyptians used Hieroglyphics as a writing form, along with papyrus and their dialect was not readable until thousands of years later.

• They developed ways to use floods to water crops.

• The Giza Pyramids were built by slaves and they had something called a Ziggurat (sort of like a flat base underneath the pyramid) which was not only used by Egyptians but was also to be used in future structures by other civilizations

• Politics

• The Egyptians did not attack foreign territory often.

• Menes unified upper and lower Egypt to get the most out of the Nile River

• Economy

• There was no currency (bartering)  

• If one did not pay their taxes, they were slaves 

• Farmers grew lots of crops and traders sold these crops for money

• Society

• There was a clear social hierarchy in Egypt.

• Soldiers were not highly praised unlike other nations. They were made up of slaves and poor people. They did this to pay off debts.

• People who were scribes and above were mummified

• Slaves were mostly made up of people who did not pay their taxes

1. Pharaoh was the most powerful

2. After that was the family of the Pharaoh, Vizirs, senior officials, and priests

3. Then Scribes

4. Then skilled craftspeople

5. Then peasants and farmers

6. Then Servants and slaves

• Was the only place in the known world that had cats.

• Men had almost complete control over their wives

Mesopotamia:

• Geography 

  • Located on the fertile crescent and it is between two rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)

  • Babylon was crucial to the advancement of Mesopotamia because it was located near the mountains (gave the people great tools to get minerals and timber) 

  • Ur was located in the south and important because it was used as a trade market

  • Sumer was located in the middle and was important because it was where most of the farming occurred

  • Mesopotamians almost always lived about a mile away from a river and if a flood were to come, it would leave the people with nutrient-rich soil

• Religion 

  • They believed that the Gods would give them bad weather or fortune when they were not pleased, the people of Mesopotamia would do anything to please the Gods. (they were scared of the Gods in a way)

  • Mesopotamians built temples for people to pay homage to their gods or goddesses

    • Built light but sturdy enough to handle an earthquake

    • Included a ziggurat similar to the Egyptians

• Advancements  

  • People wrote in cuneiform which helped in creating laws, tax collecting, stories about leaders, etc.

  • Pottery was a great advancement

  • Urban cities evolved and came out of Mesopotamia

• Politics   

  • One of the most important leaders was Hammurabi which created Hammurabi’s code.

  • Hammurabi’s code is a large number of laws and rules that were posted on large rocks and statues that had all the laws written on them.

    • The purpose of them being on rocks and statues around the area was for everyone to see them

    • Hammurabi was known for giving different punishments to people depending on where they stood in the social hierarchy

• Economy 

  • Mesopotamia was heavily dependent on trade and had resources that it could trade with other civilizations

• Society

  • Royal Family (Nobles) was the highest class of 3

  • The majority of the people (Commoners) were farmers, merchants, fisherman, and craftspeople

  • Slaves worked on large public building projects or rarely on someone's farm.

Indus River Valley Civilization:

• Geography

  • In present-day Pakistan

  • Located on the Indus River

  • The Himalayan Mountains provided a natural barrier between India and China

  • The Indus River is very strong due to the snow melt from the Himalayas

  • There is rich farmland on the outskirts of the cities

• Religion

  • They have 39,000+ Gods and Goddesses and one main God.

  • People argue over whether it is monotheistic or polytheistic

  • They practice Hinduism

  • Their highest life form is a cow and humans are the lowest

  • Believe in reincarnation

  • If you are good at what you are then you get moved up to the next best animal and vice versa.

  • After cow you are one of the Gods

  • Know about it from the writings of Verdus

  • The Ultimate goal is to find nirvana which is perfect peace

  • We know about Hinduism through the religious writings called the Vedas

  • Pantheism is the idea that everything is God. Examples of God are rocks, trees, and living things.

• Advancements

  • Almost no written records

  • Cities were very well planned and used a grid plan when building

  • It had plumbing and sewers

  • Had multi-story homes

  • First civilization to have had running water

• Politics

  • Have good enough relations with Mesopotamia to trade with them by 2300 BC 

  • No real political leader, it can be inferred that everyone lived at an equal level

• Economy

  • Made clothes, pottery, bronze items, and gold/silver jewelry.

  • People grew things that did not need a lot of water. This made it easier to maintain water supplies

  • The way we know that trade happened in this river valley was because of little seals and early variations of currency

• Society

  • Has a social system called Castes

  • Men have more than one wife

  • One would learn how to do certain things that would make it easier being in your Caste.

  • From highest to lowest: Brahmin (Priests), Kshatriya (Workers and Kings), Vashya (Merchants and landowners), Sudra (Peasants and Servants), Outcaste (Street Sweepers) (untouchables)

Yellow/Shanyze River:

• Geography

  • Rivers, Mountains, and Deserts protect the ancient Chinese civilization from all sides but from the North. This made them extremely isolated

  • The River that they relied on was called the River of Sorrows due to its common disastrous floods.

• Religion

  • The two main religions of this area were Daoism and Confucianism

    • Daoism is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life.

    • Daoism was mainly about connections with nature.

    • In the broadest sense, a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an attitude that offsets and complements the moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character ascribed to Confucianism

    • Confucianism is a belief system that was founded by Confucius in China in the 400s BCE. Confucianism’s sacred text is called The Analects and contains the teachings of Confucius.

    • Confucianists believe that everyone should strive for peace and harmony with others in society

    • People who followed the teachings of Confusious believed that they should follow their government leaders and that their leaders must lead virtuously.

    • Confucius viewed the Zhou as a kind of Golden Age. Confucius felt he had a mission to return China to its former glory, to return to the way of the Dao.

      • Dao: China’s traditional culture of self-cultivation and an emphasis on the way of virtue

• Advancements

  • Gunpowder, the compass, paper making, and printing — all of these inventions were the result of the Yellow River civilization.

  • Zhou were the reason for many chinese advancements 

    • Invented silk making for robes, dresses, scarves, etc. (reason for silk roads) 

    • Created the first books; printing press was made to mass-produce these books - way ahead of its time

    • Developed a complex writing system (ideograms that looked like calligraphy) 

    • Improved bronze technology

• Politics

  • The Shang Dynasty (~1600–1046 BC) and Zhou Dynasty (1046–221 BC) were the representative governments and eras of the Yellow River civilization. 

  • When there was a disaster or problem in the ancient nation, it would mean that the ruling family lost the mandate of heaven.

  • There was a common cycle of changing dynasties called the diagnostic cycle:

1. A new dynasty takes over

2. Gives people land and peace is restored

3. Defensive walls are built

4. Government begins neglecting their duties

5. Unpunished corruption

6. Uses taxes for personal luxurious

7. Invasions

8. Revolts

9. Repeat

• The Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty around 1050 BCE and came up with the Mandate of Heaven (Steps are above) 

• Under the Zhou, China became a feudal state system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and support to the ruler

• Economy

  • People in this civilization made money and kept the economy stable by farming

  • The products made by the Zhou were most likely traded which gave China much needed resources to flourish

• Society

  • Life was all about honoring your family and respecting your elders/older siblings/fathers/mothers 

  • Under the Shang Dynasty, social classes were discovered by Historians

    • Kings and Princes rule 

    • Royal family and noble warriors 

    • Others were peasants or farmers

  • People who were educated were seen as more important than a business owner

China (Qin):

• Geography 

  • Asia; Yellow, Yangtze Rivers, Pacific; Extends thousands of miles; Himalayas to south, western desert, exposed to attack from north only

• Religion 

  •  None really – 

    • Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism emerged as “guiding principles”

• Advancements

  • Bronze; Coins made of Bronze

  • Porcelain statues and plates

  • Terracotta soldiers

  • Gunpowder

  • Sails 

  • Many writings about Qin

  • Paintings

  • Silk

  • Great Wall of China

  • standardized pictograms/symbols for writing

  • Li Si was the famous historian/counselor 

• Politics 

  • Dynastic; Shi Huangdi emerged as leader after Warring period; unified the kingdoms (ended the Warring States Period), practiced legalism, standardized language, laws, currency & weights, building projects (Wall, canals, and roads)

  • Shi Huangdi built an authoritarian government (dictatorship) 

    • If anyone opposed him, they would be executed 

    • Made people do public works as a punishment such as the Great Wall of China, the Terracotta Army, etc.

• Economics

  • Valued farmers and peasants who fed the people (rice, vegetables), so mainly agricultural; also controlled Silk Road network and gladly exchanged silk, jade, porcelain, and tea for glass; standardize bronze coins allowed for easier trade

• Society

  •  Many people followed the practices of their “religion” which involved the respect of their elders and fathers.

  • Under Shi Huangdi and the Qin, people lived under the influence of a legalist government meaning that society had to obey Shi Huangdi or else they would be horribly punished

Classical Greece:

• Geography

  • Located at the tip of the Balkan Peninsula 

  • Had many city-states that were mainly located on the coast

  • Greece was a small archipelago in southeastern Europe (Group of Islands) which juts into Med Sea and bordered to east by Aegean Sea

  • Along the coastline, soil was not very fertile, so Greeks grew things like olives, grapes, figs, and more as food.

  • The coastline provided fish which was a staple in Greek cuisine

  • mountainous terrain led to creation of many small city-states; 

  • Athens emerged as the strongest city-state thanks to its strong navy, excellent harbor, and favorable location near Mt. Olympus

• Religion 

  • Polytheistic

  • Had temples built for gods

  • Each city state had their patron god 

  • Built the Acropolis which contained the Parthenon for Athena (Patron God of Athens)

    • There was a statue of Athena inside the Parthenon

• Advancements

  • Greek Architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings in the entire ancient world

    • Their concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and harmony in their buildings would go on to influence many future architects and provided the foundation for classical architectural foundation.

    • The Parthenon (built between 447-432 BCE) was built during the Age of Pericles and was dedicated to the patron deity, Athena

      • Made of Marble from Mt. Pentelicus and was the center of Athenian Life

  • During the Golden Age of Athens, artists developed a more realistic and idealized style in their sculptures; more natural poses and represented what Greeks thought of as the ideal human body

  • Homer was a very important figure in Greek literature

    • Wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey

    • His work is stilled used as template for modern storytellers

  • Only a limited amount of plays by three authors have survived from this time; Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides

  • In Greece, the idea of philosophy became very popular as people were able to start their own schools and debate one another

    • Philosophy: the study of ideas about knowledge, truth, and the nature and meaning of life

    • Well known philosophers include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

      • Socrates: Moral and Psychological (Socratic Method)

      • Plato: Student of Socrates; discussed ethics, politics, and the nature of ideas

      • Aristotle: Student of Plato; advances in science and logic influenced scholas for thousands of years

  • Herodotus (c. 484-425/413 BCE) brought about the importance of history 

    • Had many critics but is known today as the father of history

    • He traveled widely in Egypt, Africa, and Asia minor and wrote down his experiences and observations

    • Provided details of important historical events, everyday life, and the 7 wonders of the ancient world

  • Mathematics were used to complete projects and used to explore the true nature of the world

    • Pythagoras developed a method for explaining the relationship between the angles and legs of a triangle (Pythagorean Theorem)

  • Hippocrates was an ancient Greek physician who brought light to the subject of medicine

    • Very little is known about what Hippocrates thought, wrote, and did

    • He is credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath which is still used today

• Politics 

  •  Athens

    • Limited Democracy

    • Men over 30 could be in the assembly (congress)

    • Men over 15 could vote

    • Weren’t very healthy but lived lavishly

    • Very interested in trade

    • Believed women were inferior; Marriages were arranged

    • Boys received education in many areas, not just military training

  • Sparta

    • Rulers were two kings and a council of elders; one king took care of military, the other oversaw justice

    • Life expectancy was 48

    • Military society

    • Conquered people turned into slaves known as helots 

    • Rulers forbade trade and travel

    • Male, native-born Spartans over 30 were citizens

    • All boys got military training (mainly rowing)

    • Many children died at birth due to malnourishment; not the most hygienic society

    • Women’s jobs were to raise healthy sons for the military

  •  Between 750-500 BCE, Greeks developed different types of government

    • Started with Monarchy (kings)

    • Then went to Aristocrates (land-owner’s rule)

    • Then tried Oligarchy (Businessmen Ruled)

    • Then tried Democracy (Voting ages, male citizens could vote)

  • Each city-state, or POLIS, had its own personality, goals, laws, and customs 

  • Throughout the 400’s BCE, the Greeks fought against the Persian Empire

    • In 486 BCE the Perians invaded Greece and sacked athens but were defeated by the Greeks as they had a stronger military

    • Greece, led by Athens, formed the Delian League

  • Pericles, a prominent statesman, famous speaker, and general of Athens during the Golden age of Athens was known for how he led Athens (“Age of Pericles”)

    • He started to use the Delian League to control the other greek city-states as he moved the league’s treasury to Athens (turns Athens into a wealthy empire)

    • Was the reason for Athens being a center of education, art, culture, and democracy

    • Was responsible for major building projects like the Parthenon

    • Led his troops to victory over the mighty Persians using Thyreams (Battle of the Straits of Salamis)

• Economics

  • Food and raw materials were made available for Greece and they gained those things by trading things like olive oil, wine, and pottery to not only gain resources but to spread greek culture

    • Athens’ location was great as it gave Greece control of many key trade routes

  • Ancient Athens received lots of money and those who were in Athens lived very lavishly due to the fact that they received the tax money from all the city-states in the Delian League 

  • Primarily sea-faring traders in the Med Sea complex; had a great navy so they collected taxes from ships traveling through Aegean and Med Seas; made a fortune from Delian League fees; traded oil, wine, grain, silk to others in Med complex

• Society

  • People in Greece honored the same heroes, participated in common festivals and celebrations, prayed to the same god, and all shared the Greek language

  • Greek men ran the government and spent a great deal of time away from home

  • For fun, men enjoyed having drinking parties (symposia), wrestling, and horseback riding.

  • With the exception of Sparta, women had limited freedom away from home

  • In the home, women were in charge of the house

  • Most households had slaves (debtors) to do the cooking and cleaning

  • Greek girls stayed at home until they were married; they helped their mothers and in the fields, if necessary (except for Sparta)

  • Greek Boys didn’t go to school until around the age of 6 or 7 where they would take many classes for public speaking in order to debate; they were done with school at the age of 15 or 16 which was considered “middle aged” at that time

  • Slaves were very important

    • Cooked, cleaned, worked in the fields, factories, shops, mines, and on ships

    • Life was not too bad as families were small and received some type of compensation for their work

    • The “police force” in ancient Athens was made up of slaves

  • Slaves could not go to school, enter politics, use their own name, and were the property of their owner meaning that they were not citizens

    • Slaves were those captured in battle, children of other slaves, infants abandoned/left to die, children sold into slavery by poor and desperate families, and children kidnapped into it 

The Persian Empire

• Geography  

  • Largest empire in the world to that point

  • Primarily Asia (stretched from Med Sea to the Indus River Valley), but more of a land empire than others

    • Around the eastern edge of Iran, through the middle-east, and through the mediterranean a bit

  • Had a lot of pasture land (horses)

• Religion 

  • A combination of poly and mono, but a prominent contribution to history for Zoroastrianism (sort of monotheistic)

  • Provided religious toleration (Jews)

  • Allowed conquered folks to keep temples and religion 

• Advancements 

  • Babylonian gardens, some palaces for the satraps, massive palaces for Darius (like the one at Susa), ziggurats, Royal Road, built a number of forts

• Politics 

  • Dictatorship 

  • Cyrus and later Darius ruled this massive empire with the help of local officials known as satraps

  • Building projects like the Royal Road and standardized currency improved trade & communication 

  • Cyrus organized the capital in Pasargadae 

  • Darius, son of Cyrus, added new Persian provinces in India; extended the empire to Thrace and to the Aegean Sea

    • Capital during his rule was Persepolis 

    • Divided the empire into 20 provinces called satrapies

  • Cambyses, other son of Cyrus, successfully invaded Egypt

  • Xerxes, son of Darius, led soldiers during the Battle of Thermopylae and “captured” Athens

    • He eventually lost Athens after losing the Battle of the Straits of Salamis

• Economics 

  • A considerable amount of money came from taxing conquered people

  • Royal Road made travel easier for govt and merchants

  • Location also helped as traders traveling through Indian Ocean, Med Sea, and Silk Roads were taxed

  • Grew some wheat, but probably traded with everyone coming through the area for other goods

lots of merchants

• Had a professional army so they probably just took from subjects

• Society 

  • In the Persian Empire, there were not many problems in society

  • There was a group called the Immortals which included 10,000 highly trained soldiers 

    • These soldiers were paid professionals unlike ancient Greek soldiers

    • Once one died, they were immediately replaced

Alexander's Empire(Hellenistic Empire)

• Geography

  • Macedonia

  • The Archipelago (besides Athens and Mt. Olympus)

  • The former Persian Empire

  • Most of the Middle East (present-day

  • Asia

  • Northern Africa

  • Bits of Europe

  • Many cities surrendered after the Thebes massacre

  • Asia through the Dardanelles

  • Tried invading India in the spring of 327 BCE

  • The capital was Babylon(Alexandria was the jewel of the empire)

  • Largest empire ever up until that point

• Religion 

  • Polytheistic

  • Hellenistic culture

  • Adopted much of Greek religion

  • Multiple religion empire (Tolerant)

  • Mainly believed in Greek Gods

• Advancements

  • The conquest of Alexander the Great and later his empire did not involve too many technical or scientific advancements as Alexander let his captured empires and nations tend to themselves as long as they followed Alexander’s orders.

  • One of the only advancements that was made was the creation of the Alexandria Library in Alexandria in Egypt. This was important because it had all the information from every part of the empire and made a central area for information. This library would later be used by other empires in the future.

• Politics

  • Alexander married over 50 women so he could claim legitimate rulership over more territories. These women would have much power over their land.

  • Alexander did not have to fight much as he used the slaughter of men, women, and children at Thebes as a message to not resist and give in to his rule.

  • Alexander encouraged many of his soldiers to marry women from the lands they conquered to spread the idea of Hellenism

  • Beusepholis (Alexander’s Horse) has its city named after it and was Alexander’s most prized possession 

    • Beusepholis is seen in many of the pictures/mosaics/artistic pieces of Alexander

  • Alexander constantly tried to fit in when he went to conquered lands, but when he was offered to get a tomb in Egypt, he rejected it as he does not believe in many Egyptian beliefs 

  • After Alexander’s soldiers stop wanting to voyage with him, his horse dies, and his best friend dies, he turns to alcohol and dies

    • Three generals split control between Persia (Seleucus), Greece and Macedonia (Antigonus), and Egypt (Ptolemy)

• Economy

  • Alexander united trade routes and encouraged trade between the conquered territories. 

  • Alexander had access to trade in the Mediterranean and the Silk Road.

• Society

  • Alexander used cultural diffusion to spread the Greek culture

  • This led to Greek traditions, religion, and festivals being celebrated across the empire and not only in Greece.

  • Alexander would leave a portion of his soldiers behind at every nation so they could be the police and partial leaders and tax collectors. More importantly, however, he did this to ensure there were married Greeks, and Greek children in every part of his empire.

ROME

Geography

• Started on the center of the Etruscan Peninsula(modern day Italy)

• Expanded throughout the rest of the Etruscan Peninsula

• After the Punic Wars took over New Carthage(coastal Spain)

• North Africa

• Bordering the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Tyrrhenian seas

• Apennine mountains down the center of Italy

• Apennine mountains not very rugged, provided snowmelt for great wheat farmland(pasta)

• Carthage,Macedonia, Greece, and parts of asia became provinces

• Took over places near the silk road

• Wanted to control places with trade routes

Religion

• Rome had many temples for their gods

• Gods derived from Greek and Entruscan religious festivals (essentially copied) 

• Major roman gods named after planets

• Many temples were built to worship the Gods and Goddesses (typically smaller than Greek temples)

Art/Architecture/advancements

• Emphasized Grandeur with their buildings(big, ex. coliseum) 

• Many of the Roman theaters and Amphitheaters were inspired by the Greek versions.

• Improved the design of columns and arches

• Made the Colosseum, the largest amphitheater in the world at that time

• Most advancements happened during Pax Romana(golden age)

  • The Segovia Aqueduct in modern-day Spain is a well-preserved example of how Roman engineers used arches to span long distances and support a great amount of weight on a structure.  

  • The Pantheon is the best preserved building from ancient Rome and was completed in c. 125 CE. Its magnificent dome is a lasting testimony to the genius of Roman architects.

  • The earliest Aqueduct in Rome was the Aqua Appia (312 BCE), but the most impressive example is undoubtedly the Pont du Gard near Nimes (c. 14 CE). Romans used the arch to span rivers and ravines.

  • The fully enclosed amphitheater was a particular favorite of the Romans. The Colosseum is the largest and most famous, and it is a typical example copied throughout the empire. 

  • The Roman art form blended the idealized perfection of earlier Classical Greek sculpture with a greater aspiration for realism and absorbed artistic preferences and styles from the East to create images in stone and bronze which rank among the finest works from antiquity [the Classical Era]. 

  • Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. 

    • Mosaics have been found in Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europos.

    • The most famous mosaics of the Roman world were created in Africa and in Syria, the two richest provinces of the Roman Empire.

    • They made a mosaic of Alexander the Great which shows how much the Romans loved the Greeks.

    • Mosaics were made to remember the events that happened in the Colosseum like people fighting animals and musicians performing.

  • Roman medicine was greatly influenced by earlier Greek medical practice and literature but also made its own unique contribution to the history of medicine through the work of such famous experts like Galen.

    • Galen (131-201 CE) was a physician who learned about anatomy through the dissection of apes and pigs, clinical observation, and thorough examination of patients and symptoms. 

    • Galen was forbidden by Roman law to dissect human corpses

• Built bridges and harbors throughout the empire

• planned the construction of a canal

• Planned the founding of the first public library

• Sculptors stressed realism

• Had Frescoes and Mosaics which depicted life scenes

  • Frescoe: like a painting on a stone or some type of glass (on a wall) 

  • Mosaic: when many pieces of one material are put together to make a new picture

• Most buildings were made of concrete

• Education was very important to everyone

• Built water aqueducts

• Ptolemy proposed Earth was the center of the universe(unpopular opinion)

• Galen used experiments to prove a conclusion

• Many of these innovations were a response to the changing practical needs of Roman society, and these projects were all backed by the government which funded, organized, and spread them around the Roman world, guaranteeing their permanence so that many of these great edifices survive to the present day.

Politics

• In early Rome, they are the younger brother in the little brother-big brother relationship between them and Carthage

• Rome has two counsels. One is the day-to-day leader and the other is the military leader. 

• During the time of Julius Caesar, there were two counsels:

1. Pompey

• Unpopular

• Day-to-day leader

2. Caesar

• Popular

• Military leader

• Had many loyal soldiers and told the senate to make him a dictator or he would use the army against him.

• When he came back to Rome to become dictator he said the famous line “I came, I saw, I conquered”

• During the time of Julius Caesar

  • The people were happy and Rome was gaining prosperity.

  • He gave jobs to the people

  • Gave citizenship and rights to conquered people

  • Sent poor people to new cities in Carthage so they would not be his problem.

  • Kept conquered rulers in power.

  • Planned the founding of a public library

  • Made an improved calendar(Julian calendar,364 days) that was revolutionary for the time.

  • Caesar was considered dictator, NOT emperor

  • Rome officially became an empire after Caesar's death

  • In his will Caesar named Octavian(known as Caesar Augustus or Augustus) as heir

  • Augustus believed to be Caesar's nephew

  • Mark Anthony and Octavion fought over the Empire

  • Octavion murdered Mark Anthony and took control

  • Caesar ruled for 15 years and was killed by senate

  • Augustus ruled for 41 years (27 BCE-14 CE) 

• Before Augustus, Rome was a Republic, but after he began to rule, a 200 year long Golden age started called Pax Romana (Roman Peace)

  • The empire strengthened its central government, consolidated its power, and created a stable condition in which trade and communication flourished.

Economics

• In Rome, trade was a huge part of the empire, especially after seizing Sicily, which allowed them to tax people who went in and out of the Mediterranean Sea

• New currency was created during Caesar’s reign which no other place used (unique)

• Trade and travel during the Pax Romana helped Rome expand and from many different areas including North Africa, East Africa, the Middle-East, Spain, and more, Rome was able to get very valuable resources.

Society

• Roman generals carried achievements of Roman civilization to conquered lands

  • Stories were spread to conquered lands by Romans telling their children stories and sending their children to school

• The Family was the Basic Unit of Roman society; the Male was the head of the household and had absolute authority

• Boys and Girls read to read and write; education was highly valued in Rome

• Some women run businesses but most work at home, raising families.

Gupta & Mauryan:

Geography:

• India, Under the Himalayas

• Mauryan came before the Gupta

• Mauryan was all but the tip and Gupta was missing South India

Religion:

• Gupta: Hinduism was its main religion and Buddhism was religious tolerance

• Mauryan: Buddhism and Ashoka made Buddhism the official religion of the area

Advancements/Art

• The Gupta sculpted a lot in caves based on religion

• The Mauryans are known for Ashoka’s rock and pillar edicts (Laws)

  • Similar to Hammurabi’s code and how they were written on stones and sculptures for everyone to see

• The Gupta invented pi, decimal points, trigonometry, and negative numbers

Politics:

• The main ruler of the Gupta was Chandragupta II

• The main ruler of the Mauryans was Ashoka

• Both the Mauryans and the Guptas used emperors as their style of ruling

• The Guptas gained land by pursuing military alliances and aggressive expansionist policy

• Ashoka and the Mauryans were pacifistic (Calm)

Economics:

• The two trade routes both the Guptas and the Mauryans used were the Silk Roads and the Indian Ocean

• Both had silver/gold coins and mass-produced them as a monetary system

• The Gupta taxed trade and earned money from mines and lands

Society

• There was a clear social structure in both the Gupta and Mauryan civilizations

  • Priests

  • Warriors/Rulers

  • Traders, Merchants, Government Officials

  • Unskilled people (Artisans/Farmers)

  • Slaves/Untouchables