Malta

Maltese; 

Maltese and Arabic - Maltese is a variety of spoken arabic. However, many people view their language as semitic but not arabic today. Maltese can be classified as an “Arabic dialect”. Contemporary Maltese's strongest source is western Arabic that is shown in many grammatical features. Maltese lexicon is the closest related to traditional urban Tursian. 

Prima Facie - first impression 

Italo-Romance - The first Arab speaking settlers who colonized Malta came most likely from Sicily or southern Italy if not both. Some of them came speaking Sicilian in addition to their Arabic. Even after Malta was conquered and became part of Sicily, there weren’t massive numbers of non-arabic speakers immigrating to Malta. Of course, mainly Sicilians immigrated to Malta. Most of those immigrants were male. So, the home situations were often with the father speaking Sicilian and mother Maltese. In 1530 Italian became the official language of Malta

English - Started in 1800, when Malta was under the Britain Empire, English replaced Italian as the language of education and “high culture”. 94.6% of the population of Malta reported speaking Maltese “well” or “average[ly]”, while 82.1% reported the same for English. Compared to English, the influence of Italian, especially Sicilian, on Maltese has been deeper and more extensive. This influence includes not just borrowing words but also more fundamental changes in how the language is structured and used across different areas of life. In summary, English has primarily affected Maltese through borrowing words, while Italian (especially Sicilian) has had a broader impact on Maltese language and culture over a longer period.

Phonology of Maltese ; 

Consonants - 

Vowels - Maltese has a much richer vowel phoneme inventory. Even though it seems that many vowels have been borrowed from other languages, Maltese developed on it’s own, getting rid of some vowels and some vowels sounding different depending on the context the word is used in. Because of some borrowed words some vowels shifted into two different distinct vowel sounds. Most of the new vowel sounds in Maltese didn’t come directly from other languages. However, three new long vowel sounds (/ɛː/, /ɔː/, and /ɔɪ/) did appear thanks to borrowing. Together, these additions help create a neat system in which each short vowel has a matching long vowel.

Intonation - The study of intonation is still very new since many non-Indo-European languages weren’t yet studied well. Depending on the situation and what language the speaker is more comfortable with, they will copy the intonation according to those facts. 

• Mirrors Italian in situations like; yes/no questions, questions that start with words like “what” or “who”, statements with late emphasis 

The reason Maltese intonation is so close to Italian varieties is probably that native speakers of Italian dialects had a strong influence on the language. But it’s also possible that bilingual Maltese speakers borrowed these intonation patterns over time.

Morphology of Maltese: 

Inflection - Maltese borrowed the plural endings from Italian and English. Maltese uses both old Arabic plural patterns and new ones borrowed from Sicilian and English. The -i suffix from Sicilian is more integrated into the language and is used broadly across different types of words, while -s from English is more limited to newer borrowings. Maltese plural endings show how the language blends Arabic and Italian influences in unique ways. The -a suffix, shared by Arabic and Sicilian, works similarly for words from both sources. Meanwhile, the -ijiet suffix developed through a mix of Arabic grammar and influence from Italian nouns, showing how languages can evolve creatively through contact.

Derivation - Maltese borrows and adapts many suffixes from Italian and Sicilian. Some remain attached to the original borrowed words, while others become fully integrated and attach to native Arabic words or even new English ones. This shows how Maltese creatively mixes elements from different languages.

Verbs: 

Loaned verbs - 

• Type A: Nouns or adjectives become verbs (e.g., pitter from pittur).

• Type B: Romance verbs fit into Maltese’s root-and-pattern system (e.g., kanta).

• Type C: Romance verbs are treated as complete stems, always starting with a geminate consonant (e.g., ffolla).

• Type D: English verbs are adapted with initial consonant gemination and weak-final endings (e.g., ddawnlowdja).

This system shows how Maltese adapts borrowed verbs to fit its grammatical structure, following specific rules for gemination and conjugation.

Participles - 

1. Type A: Follows native Semitic morphology (e.g., pejjep → mpejjep).

2. Type B: Forms two participles with Sicilian -ut and Italian -it suffixes (e.g., preferut vs. preferit).

3. Type C: Uses only Romance suffixes, based on the source of the loan (e.g., konfondut).

4. Type D: English verbs take the -at suffix by default (e.g., inxurjat), with rare exceptions (e.g., spellut).

This typology highlights the complex interaction between native Semitic patterns, Romance influence, and sociolinguistic factors in the treatment of passive participles across Maltese borrowed verbs.

Syntax 

Word Order - heavily influenced by Sicilian and Italian in case of syntax, the word order within a the noun phrase, involving the order of adjectives. Italian influences on Maltese Syntax! The integration of Sicilian and Italian adjectives into Maltese led to structural changes in the noun phrase. Specifically:

• Maltese allows pre-nominal adjectives, departing from the typical post-nominal structure found in Arabic.

• Ordinal numerals and certain borrowed adjectives mirror Italian syntax by preceding their heads and taking the definite article.

This transformation in adjective placement within the noun phrase is a clear example of recipient-language agentivity: Maltese speakers actively adapted these Romance structures into the language, aligning Maltese syntax with Italian patterns.

The analytical passive - Maltese adopted analytical passive constructions.

Dynamic Passive:

• Auxiliary: ġie (‘to come’)

• Emphasizes the action being completed or occurring.

• Calque from Romance languages (Italian venire + participle).

Stative Passive:

• Structure: Copula + participle

• Describes a resulting state (e.g., something being in a closed state).

• Allows an agent introduced by minn (‘by’).

• Possibly influenced by both Romance syntax and Classical Arabic patterns.

The adoption of analytical passive constructions in Maltese, particularly the dynamic passive using ġie, reflects a direct syntactic transfer from Italian and Sicilian. These constructions enabled Maltese to accommodate borrowed Romance-origin verbs that could not be easily integrated into the traditional Semitic derived passive forms. At the same time, the stative passive combines both Romance influence and pre-existing Arabic elements, showing how Maltese syntactically blends elements from its diverse linguistic history. Together, these changes illustrate how contact with Romance languages reshaped not only the vocabulary but also the deeper syntactic structures of the Maltese language.

Lexicon 

Major source - The Maltese lexicon is a rich blend of Arabic, Romance, and English influences, shaped by historical contact with various cultures. While Arabic-origin words dominate functionally, Romance-origin words prevail in high culture and formal domains, and English loans are more visible in consumer and popular culture - modern domain. This dynamic interplay reflects both historical depth (e.g., centuries of contact with Sicilian and Italian) and modernity (e.g., recent English influence), making Maltese a linguistic palimpsest that encapsulates different layers of the island's cultural and linguistic history.

Animal Terminology:
The origin of animal names reflects geographic and cultural familiarity:

• Arabic-derived: Native Mediterranean animals (e.g., fenek ‘rabbit’ < Maghrebi Arabic fanak ‘fennec fox’).

• Romance-derived: Non-native but familiar animals (e.g., ljunfant ‘elephant’ < Sicilian liufanti).

• English-derived: More exotic animals (e.g., tapir < English tapir).

Clothing and Warfare:
Words related to clothing, hunting, and warfare similarly reflect layered borrowing:

• Arabic: suf (‘wool’)

• Sicilian: ngwanta (‘glove’)

• English: fer (‘fur’), senter (‘shotgun’)

LEXICOGRAPHICA

Malta’s many languages; 

• Geographical and historical Background; Malta and Gozo are located at the center of the Mediterranean and have been influenced by various powers due to their strategic location. The islands' history spans multiple civilizations, including Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Normans, and the Order of Saint John. Language shifts and bilingualism likely occurred with every new colonizing power.

• Phoenician, Roman, and Byzantine (Constantinople) Eras; Phoenicians settled in Malta (~800 BC) and left inscriptions in Punic and Greek. Latin inscriptions began appearing under Roman rule (218 BC–535 AD), and Greek was also used during Byzantine rule. Maltese may have spoken Latin and later Greek during these periods due to colonization and language shifts.

• Arabic influences; In 870 AD, Arabs raided the islands, introducing Arabic. A permanent Arabic-speaking population arrived in 1048. Maltese evolved from a Maghrebi Arabic dialect, similar to the one spoken in Sicily, developing separately after the Norman conquest (1090). Maltese retained its Arabic roots, as Arabic contact ceased by 1250 after Muslims were expelled from Malta and Sicily.

• Roman influence (Kingdom of Sicily); Under Norman, Swabian, Anjevin, and Aragonese rule, Latinization of Maltese began, with Sicilian and Italian influencing the vocabulary. Italian terms entered Maltese, especially during the construction of Valletta (1566-1580), which attracted immigrants from Sicily, Italy, France, and Spain.

• Order of Saint John and Italian influence; The Order of Saint John (1530-1798) adopted Italian as the official language, despite most knights being French or Spanish. Italian remained the primary written and spoken language for educated Maltese, spreading to the masses through oral communication. Malta’s population grew significantly under the Order, from 17,000 to 96,000.

• Brits; The British introduced English in 1800, but the population resisted Anglicization, maintaining Italian as a symbol of identity.English gained prominence gradually, especially in education and employment, with compulsory schooling in 1946 boosting literacy. By 1931, English was spoken by 22.6% of the population, overtaking Italian (13%).

• Maltese; Despite heavy immigration, Maltese survived due to the gradual absorption of immigrants and the lack of a strict linguistic policy by the Order of Saint John. The poor educational system also contributed to the preservation of Maltese as the majority remained monolingual.

A composite lexicon; 

• Medieval as Core Language (main historical layer of language); Arabic forms the foundation of Maltese, contributing to the basic vocabulary and morphological structure, making Maltese a Semitic language.

• Sicilian as Superstratum (when a different language influences core language, influenced vocab and phonology)

• Italian as Superstratum (culture and administrative influence); Italian became the language of law, administration, and education under the Knights. Although Italian was dropped from official status in 1936, it remained influential through literary tradition and education. Contact with Italian revived through television broadcasts (from 1957), maintaining Italian as an adstratum (secondary influence) despite declining use after 2000.

• Adstratum (influence of two neighbour languages and dialects, or to those languages coexisting in the same territory which later live in neighbour territories) English (modern influence); English was introduced in 1800 but gained prominence only after WWII, when compulsory schooling in both Maltese and English began in 1946. Today, English exerts significant influence due to global dominance and is the primary source of lexical innovation in Maltese.

Lexical studies; 

• 17th-19th century; 

• Early Lexicographers and Lost Glossaries; Hieronymus Megiser (1606): Recorded 121 Maltese words and described the language as a mix of Arabic, Saracenic, and Carthaginian. Arnold Cassola (1992): Discovered a manuscript attributed to Thezan, listing 3,110 Maltese and 3,925 Italian words. Other glossaries, including one by Gian Francesco Agius De Soldanis (1755–1759), increased the number of documented entries significantly.

• Major Dictionaries of the 18th–19th Century; Michel Antonio Vassalli (1796): His Lexicon documented 18,000 Maltese words in Italian. British influence: Practical dictionaries (e.g., Dizionario portatile and grammar guides by Francesco Vella) supported English learners in Malta.

• Cultural and Political Shifts: In the 19th century, British authorities attempted to introduce English as the official language, leading to resistance from locals, who feared the loss of their Italian cultural ties. Italian was gradually demoted from public education and official use between the 1880s and 1930s.

• 20th century and puristic (traditional) trends

• Puristic Lexical Trends: Lexicographers, like Antonio Emanuele Caruana (1903), excluded Romance words to promote a Semitic “pure” Maltese vocabulary, despite practical limitations (e.g., replacing skola with obscure words).

• Shift towards Inclusive Lexicons: Later dictionaries, such as Dun Karm Psaila’s English-Maltese Dictionary (1936–1955), became more pragmatic, accepting common Romance and English terms.

• Modern Lexicons: Erin Serracino Inglott’s Miklem Malti (1975–1989) offered a comprehensive Maltese dictionary, though accessible mainly to native speakers. Joseph Aquilina’s dictionaries (1987–2000) provided a robust bilingual resource, including 41,016 entries, setting a standard for modern lexicography.

Present composition of lexicon; 

• 20th century 

• Education and Official Language Policies; Maltese and English became essential in education and public administration. Italian, though no longer an official language, retained cultural importance, being widely studied in secondary schools and heavily consumed through Italian TV channels. Trade and tourism also maintained Italian as a relevant language.

• Mass media and pop culture 

• Language Composition and Usage; 

• 97.9% of the population speaks Maltese,

• 87.9% speaks English,

• 56.7% speaks Italian.

• Language Change and Culture identity

• In the 1960s, rural conversations documented by Aquilina reflected stronger Semitic influence.

• By the 1990s, urban speech and education introduced more Romance and English elements.

• The Loanwords in the World’s Languages project revealed that 56% of the 1,500 core meanings in Maltese are of Arabic origin, but Romance influence remains strong in specialized vocabulary such as religion, clothing, and law.

• Etymological (relating to the origin and historical development of words and their meanings.) Composition of Maltese

• 32.41% of the 41,016 words are of Arabic origin.

• 52.46% come from Sicilian and Italian.

• 6.12% are from English, reflecting Malta's colonial and modern economic links.

Maltese and English; 

• Borrowed, not owned; Although only 2,500 English-derived words are formally integrated into Maltese dictionaries, many more are regularly used in conversation. National bilingualism means that speakers are aware of the distinction between Maltese and English words, even when switching between them fluidly. However, frequent use of English expressions in informal contexts raises questions about the blurring of linguistic boundaries.

• Code switching; though frowned upon, is a common practice in Malta. A third of the population engages in code-switching regularly, especially in everyday conversations and professional settings. Code-switching appears in classrooms, homes, and offices, as children learn English terms early from parents, especially for modern appliances and domestic activities. While mixing languages is a practical tool in conversations, it remains situational. People generally avoid switching languages with monolingual speakers or in interactions with foreigners, indicating that Maltese-English code-switching is an informal, adaptive strategy rather than a permanent feature of the language.

• English Influence on Specialized and High Registers; English is increasingly the language of choice in higher education (especially at the University of Malta) and specialized professions like banking, medicine, and IT. As English terms infiltrate high-register Maltese, many are given Italianate forms to fit the local linguistic structure. This phenomenon leads to false cognates (a word in one language that is similar in form or sound to a word in another language but has a different meaning and is not etymologically related: for example, Spanish burro “donkey” and Italian burro “butter” are false cognates) 

• Risk of code-switching; Phrase-level interference is more concerning than individual word borrowings. Expressions like “I’m going to cut” (for “I’m hanging up the phone”) or “Did you cut the tickets?” (for “Did you buy the tickets?”) sound natural to Maltese-English speakers but may puzzle native English speakers. The speed of language change poses challenges. Unlike the gradual incorporation of Sicilian and Italian words over 700 years, English borrowings are spreading rapidly across all social strata thanks to media, technology, and education.

• Language Preservation in Bilingual Society; Although code-switching is widespread, it does not indicate an immediate threat to the Maltese language. Most speakers view code-switching as a situational tool rather than a shift toward abandoning Maltese altogether. Language policy and planning are crucial to maintaining linguistic identity in Malta:

• The recognition of Maltese as an EU official language in 2004 spurred efforts to expand specialized vocabulary for administration, law, and technology.

• Strengthening the standard variety of Maltese—rather than relying on censorship or rigid purism—is essential to ensuring its long-term survival.