Psychology Around Us Chapter 3: Neuroscience

Learning Objectives

1. Understand key methods used to study nervous system anatomy and functioning.

   • This includes exploring techniques such as dissection, imaging (MRI, CT scans), and electrophysiological methods.

2. Describe functions and subdivisions of the nervous system and current research in spinal cord injury.

   • Distinction between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and ongoing research into regeneration and recovery post-injury.

3. Identify key brain structures and their relationship to behavior.

   • Exploration of how various brain areas influence emotions, memory, and cognition.

Overview of Neuroscience

• Definition: Study of the brain and nervous system, focusing on how they influence behavior and cognitive functions.

• Cultural Impact of the Brain: The brain's role is often depicted in literature, movies, and media, influencing perceptions of intelligence and emotion.

Methods of Studying the Brain

1. Inquiry into Techniques: Understanding brain functioning through diverse research methodologies.

2. Techniques for Studying the Brain:

   • Autopsy tissue examination: Investigating postmortem brains for structural insights.

   • Test patients with brain damage: Observing deficits to infer functions of damaged areas.

   • Record electrical activity via EEG: Monitoring brain waves to analyze electrical activity.

   • Conduct animal studies: Using animal models for neurological research.

   • Utilize TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation): Non-invasive stimulation of brain areas to study motor and cognitive functions.

3. Neuroimaging Techniques:

   • MRI, fMRI, CAT/CT scan, PET scan, DTI: Technologies for visualizing brain activity and structure, essential for understanding neurological diseases.

Organization of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):

   • Comprising the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and coordinating activities.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

   • Nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS, includes somatic and autonomic systems.

3. Neurons:

   • Specialized cells conveying information through electrical and chemical signals.

Reflex Circuit of the Spinal Cord

• Overview of how simple reflex actions occur via sensory neurons reporting stimuli to interneurons in the spinal cord, leading to motor neuron activation, bypassing the brain for rapid response.

Brain Structures and Functions

1. Hindbrain:

   • Includes the medulla (regulating vital functions like heartbeat), pons (facilitating communication between cerebellum and cortex), cerebellum (motor coordination), and reticular formation (alertness).

2. Midbrain:

   • Primarily responsible for processing auditory and visual information and regulating movement control via substantia nigra.

3. Forebrain:

   • Houses structures like the thalamus (sensory information relay), hypothalamus (endocrine and homeostatic regulation), and limbic system (emotional response and memory).

Neurotransmitters and Functions

• Overview of neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, serotonin) indicating their role in mood regulation, cognition, and movement, along with the effects of certain medications and substances on their functions.

Neuroplasticity

• Discuss the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, which is crucial for recovery from brain injuries and adapting to new experiences.

Evolutionary Perspectives

• Evolution of Life: Diagramming progression from primitive life forms to modern humans, highlighting significant adaptations in neurological development.

• Natural Selection: Concept underlining how advantageous traits for survival are passed on, influencing the evolution of cognitive abilities and brain structure.

• Brain Evolution: Comparative studies of the australopithecus and modern humans showcasing the expansion of brain size and complexity, contributing to advanced social behaviors and language development.

Development of the Nervous System

• Examination of the stages from embryo to adult, emphasizing the migrations and differentiation of neural stem cells into specific brain structures and their functions.

Unique Features of Human Brains

• Investigating traits such as advanced communication, problem-solving, and cultural learning that differentiate humans from other species, supported by evolutionary advancements.