Untitled Flashcards Set
1. The Orient as an imaginative geography:
The concept of the Orient as an imaginative geography, rather than a fixed physical location, is illustrated by several examples:
Eugène Delacroix: His paintings offered a European artistic interpretation of the East. As discussed in Lecture 1 (Week 2), this artistic representation contributed to the construction of the Orient in the Western imagination. Delacroix's work exemplifies how the "knowledge of 'the East' is shaped by Europeans and repeated in art", based on existing Western views rather than an objective reality.
Emperor Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt: This historical event significantly contributed to the development of European knowledge and imagination about the region. Lecture 1 (Week 2) highlights this as a crucial moment in the history of French Orientalism. Napoleon's invasion, while proclaimed to defend French trade and establish scientific enterprise, also supported the ideological formation of the idea of the Orient and the justification for European conquest. The French scientists' investigations in Egypt contributed to the body of knowledge that shaped European understanding of the Orient.
Edward Said: He critically analyzed the Western construction of the East as Orientalism. Said's work, as detailed in Lecture 1 (Week 2) and the Week 2 Worksheet, defines Orientalism as a system of knowledge produced from a Western perspective that stereotypes and overemphasizes differences. Said challenged the idea of objective knowledge, arguing that it is situated and influenced by historical and political contexts, particularly in the service of colonialism.
Karima El Said: While listed as a term, the sources do not provide specific examples of her work or connection to this topic. It's possible this is a term discussed in the "power-point, L-notes, and readings" not included in these excerpts.
2. What Inter-Asian, creole or mixed communities teach us about Asia:
Inter-Asian, creole or mixed communities highlight the long history of connections and mobility within Asia:
Hadrami diaspora: Originating from Tarim Yemen, this demonstrates how people have migrated across the Indian Ocean, establishing mixed communities. Lecture 2 (Week 3) discusses the Hadrami movement as a significant example of inter-Asian mobility stimulated by Indian Ocean trade and religious travel. This diaspora shows how communities scattered across oceans can maintain cultural memory and traditions while also mixing with local populations, contradicting the idea of isolated village societies.
Peranakan Indians, Peranakan Chinese (mixed communities): These exemplify the blending of cultures and the interconnectedness of different Asian regions through historical interactions and migrations. While not detailed extensively, their existence supports the broader argument in Lecture 2 (Week 3) and the Week 3 Worksheet that Asian societies were never necessarily isolated and have a history of intertwined histories and mixed communities formed through trade, migration, and other connections.
3. The characteristics of Marshlands in Iraq and the societies they support:
The Marshlands in Iraq, home to the Ahwar (the Marsh Arab community), possess distinct characteristics:
Ottoman empire: Attempted to exert influence by implementing a Buffalo tax. As discussed in Lecture 3 (Week 4) and Lecture notes worksheet 4, the Ottomans tried to incorporate the non-state spaces of the marshes for economic interests without draining them. The Buffalo tax was one way they sought to benefit from the existing resources and the Ahwar community.
Mandate period in Iraq (when the area was rule by the British): Plans were made to drain the marshes. Following the end of Ottoman rule, Iraq became a British mandate, and the British also desired to drain the marshes. This intention highlights a shift in approach towards these wetlands compared to the Ottomans.
Ba’athist Iraq: Completed the drainage projects in the latter 20th century. As noted in Lecture 3 (Week 4) and Lecture notes worksheet 4, the Ba'athist government, under Saddam Hussein, carried out large-scale drainage projects in the 1970s and 1980s, significantly impacting the Marshlands and the Ahwar community. This was often linked to the Iran/Iraq war, the search for oil, and the expansion of agriculture.
4. The opium trade and opium wars:
The opium trade and the resulting opium wars were significant events in 19th-century Asia:
opium: The central commodity traded. As discussed in Lecture 7 (Week 8), Britain initiated opium smuggling into China to address trade deficits, creating dependence. The debate about the utility and consequences of opium addiction also emerged.
East India Company: Played a central role in the opium trade. The British East India Company was instrumental in facilitating the production and movement of opium from India to China.
opium triangle: The flow of opium from India to China, silver from China to Britain, and textiles from Britain to India. This complex flow of goods illustrates the interconnectedness of the trade and the economic interests of the different parties involved.
Lin Zexu, Qing Viceroy (d 1840) Opium: Attempted to ban opium. The Chinese government, represented by officials like Lin Zexu, took measures to halt the detrimental opium trade and its societal impacts.
There were two opium wars. 1839-42 and Second Opium War: 1856-1860: Conflicts resulting from the opium trade. The Chinese attempts to stop the opium trade led to the Opium Wars with Britain, further highlighting Western dominance and the subordination of Asia.
5. Pan Asianism and Pan-Islamism:
Pan Asianism and Pan-Islamism were movements advocating for solidarity among Asian and Islamic communities against Western dominance:
Okakura Kakuzo (d 1903): Associated with the early development of Pan-Asianism. As mentioned in Lecture 7 (Week 8) and Week 9 Lecture Notes, early Pan-Asianism promoted the idea of a shared Asian heritage and cooperation to resist Western colonial powers, with figures like Okakura Kakuzo playing a key role.
Jamal Al-din Afghani (d. 1897): A key figure in the Pan-Islamism movement. Lecture 7 (Week 8) highlights Afghani's advocacy for the unity of Islamic lands to combat colonial occupation, emphasizing education and the fusion of modernity with Islamic teachings.
Rabindranath Tagore (d. 1941): Initially a supporter of Pan-Asianism but later critical. While initially aligned with the idea, Tagore later criticized Pan-Asianism due to concerns about Japanese imperial ambitions, as noted in Lecture 7 (Week 8) and Week 9 Lecture Notes. He argued that Asian values should not be tied to imperialistic goals.
Asian relations Conference 1947: A post-World War II effort towards fostering solidarity among newly independent Asian nations. This conference, mentioned in Lecture 7 (Week 8) and Week 9 Lecture Notes, represents a re-emergence of Asian solidarity as a feminist project after the challenges of Japanese imperialism and the rise of nationalism.
6. The Asian Underground and significance of Asia to the world history of revolutions:
The Asian Underground refers to a network of early 20th-century Asian revolutionaries who sought solidarity and challenged imperial powers:
Tan Malaka (d. 1949), Ho Chi Minh (d. 1969), and M.N. Roy (d. 1954): Key figures in the Asian Underground. As discussed in Lecture 9 (Week 10) and Week 9 Lecture Notes, these Western-educated Asians were inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution and older traditions like Islam and Confucianism. They were highly mobile and sought solidarity against imperialism, with figures like Roy asserting that "Europe is not the world".
Significance to world history of revolutions: Lecture 9 (Week 10) and Week 9 Lecture Notes emphasize that Asia became a focal point of revolutionary struggles in the mid-20th century, with movements often being transnational and connecting anti-colonial nationalism with peasants and workers. The Asian Underground represents an early phase of this intellectual and political awakening.
7. National Citizenship in Asia After 1945:
The redrawing of borders and the formation of new nation-states after 1945 fundamentally reshaped National Citizenship in Asia:
Video about the transfer of power from Britain to India and Pakistan [Jawaharlal Nehru (India); M. A Jinnah (Pakistan), Lord Mountbaden (British Governor General)]: Illustrates the complexities of defining citizenship during the partition of British India. As detailed in Lecture Outline 10 (Week 11), the partition in 1947 led to a catastrophic transfer of populations and the creation of new national identities, raising fundamental questions about belonging and citizenship.
Citizenship laws After 1945 in Asia in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar): New laws led to the creation of categories like non-citizens. Lecture Outline 10 (Week 11) highlights how post-independence citizenship laws in countries like Sri Lanka and Myanmar resulted in the marginalization and statelessness of certain populations, such as the Rohingya in Myanmar and Tamils in Sri Lanka.
Domicile status or domicility: Became important in determining belonging. The concept of domicile, referring to one's principal residence with the intention to return, became crucial in defining rights and belonging in the newly formed nation-states, particularly for migrants and those displaced by partition and the end of colonial rule, as discussed in Lecture Outline 10 (Week 11).
Burma (Myanmar) Evacuee: Refers to a category of individuals who faced displacement and questions of citizenship in the aftermath of post-colonial state formation. Lecture Outline 10 (Week 11) describes how the separation of British Burma from India and the subsequent Japanese bombardment led to a mass exodus of Indians, creating the category of "evacuee" and raising complex questions about their domicile, rights, and ability to return and claim citizenship in either India or Burma.
8. What have values got to do with economic prosperity in Asia:
The relationship between cultural values and economic prosperity in Asia is exemplified by the emphasis on Asian values—Confucian values and development:
Lee Kwan Yew (Singapore Prime Minister from 1959-1990) (d. 2015): Actively promoted these values, including stability, hard work, and respect for authority, as contributing factors to Singapore's economic success. As discussed in Week 11 Lecture Notes, Lee prioritized economic livelihood over political freedom and emphasized Confucian-derived "Asian values" as a basis for Singapore's development into a free market economy.
Mao Zedong (d. 1976): His successors in post-reform China also saw the increasing prominence of Confucian values as a cultural foundation for its market-oriented economy. Interestingly, Week 11 Lecture Notes point out that after Mao's death and the subsequent economic liberalization, China, like Singapore, increasingly celebrated Confucian values to support its new capitalist economy, suggesting a shared appeal to "Asian values" for national development despite different political systems.
The Orient as an imaginative geography: Imagine you're looking at a map. You see continents labeled like Europe, Asia, Africa, etc. You might think these are just physical places with clear, fixed borders. However, the idea of "Asia," especially as it was historically understood in the West (Europe and North America), wasn't just about a physical location. It was also an "imaginative geography".
Think of it like this: When people in Europe started to think about the lands to their east, they created a general idea of this place they called "Asia" or "the Orient". This idea wasn't always based on accurate knowledge of the diverse cultures and societies there.
The term "Orient" itself comes from Latin and means "where the sun rises," essentially the East from a European perspective. So, "Asia" or "the Orient" became a way for Europeans to define everything that was not European.
Edward Said was a scholar who wrote a famous book called "Orientalism". He argued that this idea of the Orient was not a neutral description but a system of knowledge created by Europeans. This system often portrayed the Orient as "backward" or different in exaggerated ways to justify European colonialism and power.
For example, historical maps from Asia might place China at the center, showing a very different view of the world compared to European-centric maps. This highlights that the way we imagine and map places is influenced by our perspective and power.
Even today, when we talk about "Asian values" or see stereotypes in media, these can be influenced by this long history of "Orientalism". It's not just about real differences but also about how the West has historically imagined the East.
Think of a movie set in a vaguely "Eastern" land with stereotypical music and clothing. That's an example of how the "Orient" can be portrayed based on imagination rather than specific, accurate knowledge.
What Inter-Asian, creole or mixed communities teach us about Asia: Instead of Asia being a collection of isolated countries, it has a long history of connections and interactions between different regions. People have moved across Asia for centuries through trade, religion, and other reasons. This movement led to the formation of "creole" or "mixed communities".
Inter-Asian connections refer to these links formed through the movement of people, goods, ideas, and technologies. Think of the Silk Road, an ancient network of trade routes connecting East and West Asia, where not just goods but also religions like Buddhism spread.
Creole or mixed communities are those where different cultures and ethnicities have blended over time.
The Hadrami diaspora is a great example. People from the Hadramawt region in Yemen migrated across the Indian Ocean for trade and religious purposes, settling in various parts of Southeast Asia and forming communities that mixed with local populations while still maintaining ties to their homeland.
The term "Peranakan Chinese" (or Indians) also refers to mixed communities, in this case, often resulting from marriages between Chinese (or Indian) traders and local people in Southeast Asia.
These mixed communities teach us that Asia was never made up of completely isolated societies. They show the long history of interconnectedness and exchange. These histories were sometimes forgotten because scholars focused more on rural peasant life or because nationalist movements in newly independent Asian countries emphasized a singular national identity. However, understanding these connections gives us a richer and more accurate picture of Asia's past and present.
Think of a modern-day Asian city with diverse restaurants, temples, and cultural practices reflecting the intermingling of different Asian groups over time.
The characteristics of Marshlands in Iraq and the societies they support: The Mesopotamian Marshes (also called the Iraqi Marshes or Ahwar) are a significant wetland area in southern Iraq and parts of Iran and Kuwait. They have a unique environment and have historically supported a distinct society, the Marsh Arabs (Ahwar community).
These marshlands are characterized by their watery landscape, with thick reeds and diverse wildlife. The Marsh Arabs have a deep connection to this environment, traditionally living by fishing, harvesting reeds and rice, and herding water buffalo. They often live in houses made of reeds and travel by boat.
Historically, these marshlands were often "non-state spaces". This means that governments found it difficult to establish and maintain their authority in this region due to the challenging geography. The dense environment provided a degree of protection for the people living there.
Over time, the marshes and the Marsh Arabs faced various pressures. The Ottoman Empire tried to incorporate the area for economic interests without draining it. The British during their mandate period had plans to drain the marshes. Later, the Ba'athist government under Saddam Hussein implemented large-scale drainage projects in the 1970s-1990s, which severely damaged the ecosystem and the way of life of the Marsh Arabs. These actions were partly for agricultural purposes, oil exploration, and to control a population seen as resistant.
Despite these challenges, the Marsh Arabs have shown resilience, and after the fall of Saddam Hussein, many returned to the reflooded areas. However, they continue to face issues like drought and lack of government support.
Think of a remote wetland ecosystem like the Florida Everglades and imagine a community deeply intertwined with its unique resources and facing external pressures from development.
The opium trade and opium wars: In the 19th century, the British East India Company engaged in a significant trade of opium from British-controlled India to China. This trade led to major conflicts known as the Opium Wars.
Historical Context: Britain had a trade deficit with China, meaning they were buying more goods (like tea and silk) from China than they were selling. To address this, the British started smuggling opium, which was grown in India, into China.
Impact on China: Opium is an addictive drug, and its widespread use in China caused significant social and economic problems, including addiction and a drain of silver from the Chinese economy. The Qing dynasty government tried to ban the opium trade. Lin Zexu, a Qing Viceroy, was a key figure in attempting to stop the trade.
The Opium Wars: The Chinese efforts to ban opium led to two wars with Britain: the First Opium War (1839-1842) and the Second Opium War (1856-1860). Britain, with its superior military technology, won both wars.
Consequences: The treaties that ended these wars, such as the Treaty of Nanjing, were unequal treaties that greatly benefited Britain. They forced China to open up more ports to British trade, cede territory (like Hong Kong), and pay large indemnities. The Opium Wars weakened the Qing dynasty and further opened China to Western influence.
This is an example of how the colonization of one part of Asia (India) was used to exert control and dominance over another (China). The "trade triangle" involved opium from India to China, silver and tea from China to England, and then manufactured goods from England back.
Pan Asianism and Pan-Islamism: These were ideologies of solidarity and cooperation that emerged in Asia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to Western colonialism and a shared sense of cultural identity.
Pan-Asianism: This idea promoted the unity and cooperation of all Asian peoples. It was based on the belief that Asians shared a common cultural heritage and should work together to resist Western domination. Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 initially boosted Pan-Asianist sentiments, as it was seen as an Asian power defeating a Western one. However, Rabindranath Tagore, an Indian intellectual, later criticized Pan-Asianism when Japan started exhibiting its own imperial ambitions. Key figures associated with early Pan-Asianism include Okakura Kakuzo.
Pan-Islamism: This movement advocated for the unity of all Islamic lands and peoples. It aimed to strengthen Islamic solidarity as a way to resist Western colonial occupation. Leaders of this movement, such as Jamal Al-din Afghani, promoted education, the use of the press, and the integration of modern ideas with Islamic teachings. Some proponents even advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity within this broader framework of resistance. The Ottoman Empire was sometimes seen as a potential center for Pan-Islamic unity.
These movements represent early forms of anti-colonial thought and resistance in Asia, seeking strength in unity based on shared cultural or religious identities.
The Asian Underground and significance of Asia to the world history of revolutions: The Asian Underground was a network of early anti-imperialist revolutionaries in the early 20th century, particularly between 1917 and the 1920s. This movement highlights Asia's significant role in the global history of revolutions.
Inspiration: The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 was a major inspiration for the Asian Underground, demonstrating that overthrowing imperial powers was possible. This was a time of growing global critique of imperialism. It's important to note that this inspiration came from the Bolshevik Revolution, not from Japan's victory over Russia.
Key Figures: Prominent individuals involved included M.N. Roy (India), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), and Tan Malaka (Indonesia). These were often Western-educated Asians who developed a deep understanding of different social contexts.
Characteristics: Members of the Asian Underground were highly mobile, traveling across continents as students and even soldiers. They sought solidarity among Asian revolutionaries and tried to develop revolutionary thought independent of European dominance. For instance, M.N. Roy famously said, "Europe is not the world". Tan Malaka explored the connections between Islam and revolution, while Ho Chi Minh attempted to unify Asian revolutionaries.
Significance: The Asian Underground was significant because it represented an early, transnational (going beyond national borders) approach to anti-imperialism. It connected elite anti-colonial nationalists with grassroots movements of peasants and workers. While the nationalist movements that eventually came to power after 1945 sometimes distanced themselves from these early communist revolutionaries, the Asian Underground laid the groundwork for later revolutionary movements in Asia. Asia became a focal point of revolutionary struggles in the mid-20th century.
Think of early activists from different countries meeting and sharing ideas to fight a common enemy, like how people from different parts of the world might collaborate online today for a social cause.
National Citizenship in Asia After 1945: Following World War II and the decline of European and Japanese empires, many new nation-states emerged in Asia. This period of decolonization (roughly 1945-1955) led to the redrawing of borders and the establishment of national citizenship laws. This process had a profound impact on Asian connections and the lives of many people.
Redrawing Borders: The partition of British India in 1947 into India and Pakistan is a major example of how the rise of nation-states reshaped Asian geography. This was a violent and traumatic process involving mass migration and loss of home for many. The separation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971 further illustrates this reshaping.
Citizenship Laws and Statelessness: The creation of nation-states also led to the definition of national belonging through citizenship laws. However, this process also created categories of non-citizens, semi-citizens, and stateless people. Stateless people are those not considered nationals by any state.
The situation of Indians in Burma (Myanmar) after its independence in 1948 is a key example. Many Indians who had migrated to Burma during British colonial rule faced difficulties in obtaining Burmese citizenship. Terms like "domicile" (principal residence with the intention to return) and "evacuee" (those who fled during the Japanese occupation) became relevant in determining their status. Many were eventually forced to leave.
Similarly, in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) after independence, a large population of Tamil plantation workers of Indian origin were deprived of citizenship in 1948, leading to statelessness.
The Rohingya in Myanmar are a tragic ongoing example of a group largely considered stateless due to Myanmar's citizenship laws.
The idea of loyalty to the state became a crucial factor in determining citizenship. This contrasted with the more fluid movements and identities that existed before the rise of nation-states with strict borders and citizenship regimes.
What have values got to do with economic prosperity in Asia: After achieving independence, various Asian nations pursued different paths to economic development. The idea of "Asian values" became significant in explaining the economic success of some East and Southeast Asian countries, often referred to as "Asian Tigers".
The Concept of Asian Values: This term generally refers to a set of cultural principles often associated with Confucianism. These values include stability, hard work, loyalty, respect for family and elders, and the prioritization of societal well-being over individual liberty.
Singapore: Under its long-time Prime Minister Lee Kwan Yew, Singapore emphasized these "Asian values" as a foundation for its rapid economic growth as a free market hub. Lee argued that economic livelihood was more important than political freedom in the early stages of development.
China: Interestingly, post-Mao China, while being a communist state with market liberalization, also saw a resurgence of Confucian values as a cultural basis for its economic reforms. Chinese leaders were reportedly interested in the Singaporean model. They promoted values like benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, trustworthiness, loyalty, piety, and filial piety.
Debate: The role of "Asian values" in economic prosperity is debated. Some argue that these cultural factors contributed to the disciplined workforce and social stability necessary for economic growth. Others are more critical, suggesting that this emphasis on values can sometimes be used to justify authoritarianism and suppress political freedoms.
It's important to note that while some countries like Singapore and China explicitly invoked "Asian values," others like India under Nehru focused on a mixed economy and democratic institutions, prioritizing self-sufficiency without the same explicit emphasis on a distinct set of cultural values driving their economic model.
Think of it like different recipes for economic success, where some might emphasize cultural traditions as key ingredients.