5.2: Manifest Destiny

Westward Expansion 🌄

Manifest Destiny is the idea that Americans have a God-given right to have a nation that extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans.

"And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us." - John O'Sullivan, 1845

Reasons for Westward Expansion

• Access to mineral and natural resources: The discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to the California Gold Rush, and subsequent discoveries in Colorado, the Dakotas, and Nevada induced more migrations west.

• Economic and homesteading opportunities: The Preemption Acts of the 1830s and 1840s made vast tracts of land available for cheap to anyone who wanted to buy it and set up a homestead.

• Religious refuge: Groups like the Mormons fled persecution in the Midwest and settled in the Utah Territory, where they could practice their religion freely.

Case Study: James K. Polk and Manifest Destiny

Texas Independence

• 1829: The Mexican government decreed that immigrants must convert to Roman Catholicism and outlawed slavery, which led to tensions with American settlers.

• 1834: A change in government in Mexico led to an attempt to clamp down on the Texans, who responded by revolting and declaring independence under Sam Houston's leadership.

• 1836: The Texans declared independence, but Mexico did not recognize it, leading to a complicated situation when Texas applied for statehood in the United States.

Oregon Territory

• The British and Americans disputed ownership of the territory, with the British citing their established fur trade and the Americans arguing for their right to the land based on Manifest Destiny.

• The Treaty of 1846 divided the territory at the 49th parallel, with the United States gaining control of the land south of the border.

5.3: Mexican-American War

Causes of the Mexican-American War 🌊

The Mexican-American War was sparked by a series of events and tensions between the United States and Mexico. Here are the key causes:

Texas Independence and Annexation

• Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836 and fought several battles to that end.

• Although tensions cooled down, Mexico was not ready to concede defeat, and the situation remained unresolved.

• Texans wanted to be annexed by the United States, which was unacceptable to the Mexican government.

James K. Polk and the Election of 1844

• James K. Polk was elected president in 1844, and one of his main campaign promises was the annexation of Texas.

• John Tyler, Polk's predecessor, led the process to annex Texas, but only did so when he was leaving office and saw that the American people favored this move.

Diplomatic Tensions and Border Disputes

• John Slidell, a diplomat, was sent to Mexico City with two tasks:

  • Ask the Mexican government to sell more land to the United States (namely, the New Mexico and California territories).

  • Settle the location of the southern border of Mexico.

• Mexico refused to sell more land, and the border dispute remained unresolved, with Mexico claiming the Nueces River as the border and the US claiming the Rio Grande.

The Spark that Ignited the War

• President Polk sent General Zachary Taylor with troops to the Rio Grande, leading to a conflict with Mexican troops, resulting in the deaths of 11 Americans.

• Polk used this event to justify the war, and Congress granted him one on May 13, 1846.

Effects of the Mexican-American War 🌈

The war resulted in significant consequences for both the United States and Mexico. Here are the key effects:

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• The treaty established the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas.

• Mexico ceded California and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million, known as the Mexican Cession.

Wilmot Proviso and Slavery Tensions

"The Wilmot Proviso proposed that any lands gained from victory in the Mexican American war be off limits to the expansion of slavery."

• The proviso was voted down, but it highlighted the growing tension over the slavery question.

• Some historians point to this amendment as the first round in the fight that ultimately led the United States to the Civil War.

Impact on Non-American Populations

• Mexicans living in the territory were granted U.S. citizenship, but Indians living in the territory were not.

• Indians faced an assault on their civil rights, including voter discrimination and educational segregation, and wouldn't have a chance at citizenship until the 1930s.

5.4 & 5.5: Sectional Conflict over the Compromise of 1850

The Missouri Compromise and the Sectional Crisis 🌊

The Missouri Compromise, also known as the Compromise of 1820, was a crucial agreement that established the 36°30' parallel as the dividing line between slave and free territories.

The Southern Position 🔴

• Argued that slavery was a constitutional right

• Believed the Missouri Compromise had already established where slavery could and could not exist

• Wanted to extend the compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, ensuring the continuation of slavery and their economy

"For [Southerners], the Missouri Compromise was a guarantee that slavery, not to mention their entire economy and way of life, would continue to exist unharrassed below this line."

The Free Soil Movement 🌳

• Comprised of Northern Democrats and Whigs

• Wanted new territories to be the dominion of free laborers, not enslaved ones

• Conflicting views within the movement:

  • Some wanted to ban slavery in new territories, not because they thought it was morally wrong, but because they didn't want to compete with enslaved labor

  • Abolitionists wanted to ban slavery everywhere, not just in new territories

Popular Sovereignty 🗳

• People in each territory would decide the slavery question for themselves

• Seemed like a middle-ground position, but:

  • Southerners would only accept it if the territory chose to allow slavery

  • Free soilers would only accept it if the territory chose to ban slavery

The Aftermath of the Mexican-American War 🔥

• The addition of California and New Mexico as free states tipped the balance in the Senate toward the free states

• This meant that Southerners could no longer pass laws that favored them, and the end of slavery was a real possibility

The Compromise of 1850 🤝

Proposed by Henry Clay, this compromise aimed to solve the sectional crisis:

This compromise temporarily calmed tensions, but the Fugitive Slave Law would eventually break the calm.

Regional Tensions: Immigration and Slavery 🗽️

In this section, we'll explore the growing tensions between the northern and southern states in the years leading up to the Civil War, with a focus on regional attitudes toward immigration and slavery.

Immigration and Nativism 🇺🇸

During this period, a large number of immigrants, primarily Irish and German, arrived in the United States. They settled in cultural enclaves, maintaining their cultural customs, languages, and religions.

Nativism Defined

Nativism is a policy of protecting the interests of native-born people against the interests of immigrants.

The Know-Nothing Party emerged, opposing immigration and seeking to limit immigrants' cultural and political influence.

Regional Tensions: Slavery 🌳

The economies of the North and South were moving in different directions:

The Free Soil Movement

The Free Soil Movement emerged, seeking to prevent the expansion of slavery into new territories. This movement was not abolitionist, but rather aimed to protect the interests of free-wage laborers.

Abolitionists 🕊

A minority in the North, abolitionists sought to ban slavery altogether. They used various strategies, including:

• Printed words: William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator and Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin

• Spoken words: Frederick Douglass's powerful abolitionist speeches

• Assisting fugitive slaves: The Underground Railroad, a network of trails and safe houses for escaping enslaved individuals

• Violence: John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry, seeking to ignite an armed rebellion against the slaveholding South

5.6: Failure of Compromise

Compromises and Failures 🔥

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

In 1854, Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois proposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which divided the northern section of the Louisiana Purchase into two territories: Kansas and Nebraska. The act allowed each territory to decide by popular sovereignty whether to allow slavery or not.

"Popular sovereignty" means that the people living in those territories could decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act effectively overturned the Compromise of 1820, which prohibited slavery in territories north of the 36°30' line. This outraged many Northern Americans, especially abolitionists.

The violence that erupted in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups became known as Bleeding Kansas. Pro-slavery Missourians illegally voted in the Kansas territorial legislature election, leading to the establishment of two rival governments: one pro-slavery in Lecompton and one anti-slavery in Topeka.

The Dred Scott Decision of 1857

In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case, led by Chief Justice Roger Taney. Dred Scott, an enslaved man, sued for his freedom, arguing that he was free since he had lived in free territories (Illinois and Wisconsin) for two years.

The Court's decision:

• Dred Scott, as a slave, was not a citizen and had no right to sue in federal court.

• The Constitution states that Congress cannot deprive any citizen of property, implying that enslaved people were property.

• Therefore, slave owners could take their "property" (enslaved people) anywhere they wanted, opening any territory or state to slavery.

This decision effectively allowed slavery to spread into new territories, further dividing the nation.

The Election of 1860 and the Party System

The increasing division over slavery weakened the two-party system:

The Republicans did not advocate for the abolition of slavery but opposed its spread into new territories. Southern Democrats saw the Republican Party as a threat to the institution of slavery.

5.7: Election of 1860 and Secession

The Election of 1860 🗳

The Contenders

The election of 1860 saw two main contenders:

• Stephen Douglas, nominated by the Democrats, who ran on a platform of popular sovereignty, allowing the people living in the territory to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

• Abraham Lincoln, nominated by the Republicans, who ran on a free soil platform, seeking to keep slavery from expanding into new territories.

The Divided Democratic Party

The Democratic party was divided into two factions:

The Election Results

Lincoln won the election with 40% of the popular vote, but carried the electoral vote. Notably, he won the presidency without a single electoral vote from southern states.

The Southern Response

The Southern states saw Lincoln's election as a threat, despite his promises not to abolish slavery where it already existed. They felt that their political power was being eroded and that the North was seeking to destroy them.

Secession

In December 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, followed by six other states within six weeks. These states eventually formed the Confederate States of America.

The Confederate Constitution

The Confederate Constitution was similar to the United States Constitution but with severely limited federal power and provisions that enshrined slavery as a perpetual institution.

Why Did the Southern States Secede? 🤔

There are two competing answers to this question:

• One group says the South seceded to protect slavery.

• The other group says the South seceded on the grounds of states' rights.

However, the answer is not a mystery. The Confederate states themselves explained their reasons for secession in their articles of secession.

Texas' Reasoning

"With the election of Lincoln, the country had become controlled by 'a great sectional party...proclaiming the debasing doctrine of the equality of all men, irrespective of race and color—a doctrine at war with nature, in opposition to the experience of mankind, and in violation of the plainest revelations of Divine Law.'"

They also charged the Republicans with the nefarious agenda of "the abolition of negro slavery" and "the recognition of political equality between the white and negro races."

South Carolina's Reasoning

South Carolina's articles of secession focused on the violation of their constitutional rights, specifically with regards to the northern sympathies with antislavery principles and the oppressive designs of the newly ascendant Republican Party.

Mississippi's Reasoning

"Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery."

The Conclusion

In their own words, the Southern states seceded to protect slavery. While there may be complications and nuances to this argument, the answer is plain: slavery must be protected world without end.

5.8: Military Conflict

actors Contributing to Union Victory in the Civil War 🏛

The Union and Confederacy had different advantages that contributed to the outcome of the Civil War. These advantages can be compared in a chart:

Mobilization of Economies for War Effort 💸

Both the Union and Confederacy had to mobilize their entire economies to fight the war.

Union:

• Manufacturers rapidly modernized their productive capacity

• Industrialists like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller got their start by manufacturing goods for the Union effort

Confederacy:

• Relied mainly on tariffs and taxes on exports to raise revenue

• Plan faltered with Union naval blockades, leading to financial struggles

Opposition to the War on the Homefront 🏠

There was substantial opposition to the war on the homefront in both the Union and the Confederacy.

Union:

• New York City Draft Riots (1863): protests against the draft turned violent, resulting in at least 120 deaths

Confederacy:

• Introduced a war tax, but many people and states refused to fund the centralized effort due to states' rights

Course of the War 🔥

The war began with the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, which led to Southern secession. The first official salvo of the war was fired at Fort Sumter, a federal possession in Confederate South Carolina.

Early Battles

• First Battle of Bull Run (1861): Union troops were defeated by Confederate forces under Stonewall Jackson

Strategies

• Anaconda Plan (Union): blockade Southern ports and control the Mississippi River to split the Confederacy in half

• Southern Strategy: rely on foreign help, especially from Britain and France, due to their reliance on exported southern cotton

Turning Points

• Improvements in Union leadership, particularly with the rise of General Ulysses S. Grant

• Key battle victories

• Wartime destruction of the South's infrastructure

The Emancipation Proclamation (1862) 📜

"The Emancipation Proclamation was more a military strategy than a document of freedom."

• Freed enslaved people in Confederate states, but not in Border States (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and West Virginia) where slavery was still allowed

• Changed the scope of the war, making it about eradicating slavery in the United States

• Led to enslaved workers escaping to Union lines and some taking up arms for the Union cause## The Shift in International Opinion 👋

The British refusal to aid the South was a significant turning point in the war. Once the war was viewed as a fight against slavery, Britain, who had recently abolished slavery themselves, were extremely unlikely to support the Confederacy.

Key Victories in Battle ⚔

Several battles were crucial to the Union's success. One notable example is:

The Battle of Vicksburg

• General Grant led the Union to victory, gaining control of Mississippi.

• This victory allowed the Union to cut the Confederacy in half, a crucial strategic goal.

Devastation of the South's Infrastructure 💥

The destruction of the South's infrastructure further ensured the Union's victory.

The March to the Sea

• General William Tecumseh Sherman led the march from Atlanta to Savannah.

• Sherman implemented a scorched earth policy, destroying:

  • Railroads

  • Crops

  • Land

• This made it nearly impossible for the South to recover its strength.

The Union Naval Blockade

The blockade was another significant factor in the Union's victory.

The Final Act 🎉

The combination of these factors led to:

• General Grant and General Lee meeting at the Appomattox Courthouse on April 9th, 1865.

• Lee's formal surrender to Grant marks the end of the war.

5.9: Government Policies during the Civil War

Leadership During the Civil War 🏛

Review of Emancipation Proclamation

• Emancipation Proclamation: a military tactic issued by Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, freeing all enslaved people in the Confederacy

• Limitations: did not free all enslaved people, only those in Confederate states, not border states

• Benefits:

  • Cut off European diplomatic support for the South

  • Created occasion for many enslaved people in the South to escape and fight for the Union

The Gettysburg Address 📜

• Date: November 19, 1863

• Purpose: to dedicate the Gettysburg cemetery and reframe the purpose of the Civil War

• Key points:

"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."

Liberty: freedom from slavery and oppression Equal: having the same rights and opportunities as others

• Impact: reframed the war as a fight to end slavery and fulfill America's founding democratic ideals

Gettysburg Address Summary

Impact on American Ideals

• Reframed the purpose of the Civil War: from preserving the Union to ending slavery and fulfilling America's founding ideals

• Influenced public opinion: shifted public support towards the abolition of slavery

5.10: Reconstruction Begins

Reconstruction: The Process of Knitting Two Regions Back Together ☕

In this video, we're going to explore the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

The Crucial Question: Leniency or Conquered Foe? 🤔

After the Civil War, the most crucial question to be answered was: should the Confederacy be treated with leniency or as a conquered foe?

Abraham Lincoln's Plan: The Ten-Percent Plan 🤝

Abraham Lincoln was of the lenient persuasion. He believed that the South never actually left the Union because it was legally impossible for them to do so. His plan for Reconstruction, known as the Ten-Percent Plan, established a minimum test of political loyalty for southern states to return to the Union.

Terms of the Ten-Percent Plan:

• 10% of the 1860 electorate had to pledge loyalty to the Union.

• The state legislature had to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery.

Andrew Johnson's Plan: Carrying Out Lincoln's Plan, But... 😒

Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's vice president, attempted to carry out Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction. However, he was not as magnanimous as Lincoln and stood by while the former slave-owning class assumed power and recreated conditions in the South that were largely the same as before the war.

The Black Codes:

"A series of restrictive laws passed by Southern states that restricted the freedom of Southern black folks and forced them to work for low wages."

The Radical Republicans: Upholding and Extending Rights for Black People 🚀

The Radical Republicans in Congress were concerned about Johnson's leniency and complicity in resegregating the South. They wanted to pass legislation that upheld and extended rights for black people in the South while suppressing any attempt at Southern resurgence.

Legislation Passed by the Radical Republicans:

• Extension of the Freedman's Bureau, an agency set up to help newly freed black people.

• The Civil Rights Act of 1866, which protected citizenship of black folks and gave them equal protection under the laws.

The Fourteenth Amendment: Solidifying Rights 📜

To solidify these rights, the Radical Republicans proposed a constitutional amendment, the Fourteenth Amendment, which stated that all persons born or naturalized in the United States were citizens of the United States, and that every citizen enjoyed equal protection of the laws on the state level.

The Reconstruction Acts of 1867: Enforcing Laws and Granting Voting Rights 👮‍♂

The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 were passed over Johnson's veto and assured that all the laws being passed would be enforced in the South. The acts divided the South into five districts and put them under military occupation with federal troops. Additionally, they increased the requirement for southern states to rejoin the Union, including ratifying the 14th amendment and adding a provision for universal male voting rights.

Requirements for Southern States to Rejoin the Union:

The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson: A Trial, Not Removal 🚫

The Radical Republicans brought a full-fledged impeachment trial against Andrew Johnson, which ultimately failed to oust him by one vote. However, it rendered him powerless to direct any future policies of Reconstruction.

What is Impeachment?

"A trial which determines if a president should be removed from office, not the removal itself."

The Women's Rights Movement and Reconstruction: A Split 😕

The women's rights movement was split over the 15th Amendment, which granted voting rights to newly freed black men but not to women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association, which continued to fight for women's suffrage, while Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association, which focused on working for women's suffrage on the state level.

The Difference Between the Two Associations:

"When you ask whether each of these groups likes the 15th Amendment, the National Woman Suffrage Association says NA, and the American Woman Suffrage Association says EEYY."

5.11: Reconstruction Fails

🎥 Failure of Reconstruction: Southern Society and Economics 🎥

Post-Civil War Southern Society

After the Civil War, the black population in the South had to adjust to their new reality of freedom. To gain independence from white control, they:

• Established black schools for their children

• Founded black colleges like Morehouse and Howard

• Elected black men to various representative offices

Additionally, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau, which helped:

• Reunite families separated by slavery

• Arrange for their education and social welfare

Continuities between Pre- and Post-War South

Despite these gains, the white population in the South created societal conditions that resembled pre-Civil War slavery and segregation. Two examples:

• Sharecropping: A system where landowners provided seed and farm supplies to workers in exchange for a share of the harvest. In practice, it became another form of coerced servitude, not unlike slavery.

• White Supremacy: The ongoing belief in Southern society that the white race was superior to the black race.

The Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan was founded in 1867 on the principle of white supremacy. Members:

• Burned buildings

• Controlled local politics through intimidation

• Perpetrated public and private lynchings of black people who refused to accept their place in the world

Black Codes

The Black Codes were a series of laws adopted by Southern legislatures to codify white supremacy. These laws:

📊 End of Reconstruction in 1877 📊

The end of Reconstruction was a result of:

• The contested presidential election of 1876 between Samuel Tilden and Rutherford B. Hayes

• The loss of Northern zeal for reform and focus on industrial development

The Compromise of 1877 was reached, in which Democrats agreed to concede the election to Hayes in exchange for the removal of federal troops from the South. This marked the end of Reconstruction and allowed Democrats to dominate once again, creating an even bleaker reality for the southern black population.