Comparative Politics course

Comparative political scientists are scholars who study and analyze political systems, institutions, and processes across different countries to identify similarities, differences, and patterns.

Quantitative data - is expressed in numerical form and can be analyzed statistically.

Qualitative data - contains non-numeric representations such as words, images and text.

Political Systems: systems refer to the structures and processes through which a society makes collective decisions, exercises power, and governs itself.

• Regimes: Regimes are the rules, norms, and institutions that govern political behavior within a political system.

• Governments: Governments are the specific individuals or groups that hold power within a political system and make decisions on behalf of the society.

• Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a type of political system where power is concentrated in one leader or group without meaningful competition or accountability.

• Institutions: refer to the established structures and organizations that shape and govern political systems. They provide the framework for how power is exercised, decisions are made, and policies are implemented within a society. Refer to the established structures and organizations that shape and govern political systems. They provide the framework for how power is exercised, decisions are made, and policies are implemented within a society.

• Legislatures: These are specific institutions within a political system responsible for making laws. They consist of elected representatives who debate and pass legislation.

• Political Parties: Political parties are organized groups that represent different ideologies or interests within a society. They aim to gain power through elections and influence policy-making processes.

• Judiciary: The judiciary is an institution responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring their fair application. It includes courts and judges who settle disputes and uphold justice in accordance with legal principles.

• Comparative Methodology: The approach used by comparative political scientists to systematically compare and analyze different political systems.

Elections - are formal processes where citizens choose their representatives or leaders through voting. They provide an opportunity for people to express their preferences and have a say in shaping the government.

• Suffrage: The right to vote in political elections.

• Electoral Systems: The rules and procedures used to translate votes into seats or positions of power within a government.

• Voter Turnout: The percentage of eligible voters who actually cast their ballots during an election.

Legitimacy - refers to the acceptance and recognition of a government or political system by its citizens as having the right to rule and exercise authority.

• Democracy: A system of government where power is vested in the people, either directly or through elected representatives, providing legitimacy through popular consent.

• Authoritarianism: A form of government characterized by strong central control and limited political freedoms, often lacking widespread legitimacy due to lack of citizen participation.

• Rule of Law: The principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to laws that are fairly applied and enforced, contributing to the legitimacy of a government.

Culture and participation refers to the ways in which a society's beliefs, values, norms, and traditions influence political behavior and engagement. It encompasses how individuals interact with their government and participate in political activities.

• Political Socialization: The process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and attitudes from their social environment.

• Civic Engagement: The active involvement of citizens in their communities or in public affairs, such as voting, volunteering, or participating in protests.

• Political Efficacy: The belief that one's actions can make a difference in the political process or influence government policies.

Citizen organizations are non-governmental groups formed by individuals who come together around shared interests or causes. They aim to promote specific issues, advocate for policy changes, or provide services to communities without being part of the government structure.

• Interest Groups: Organizations that seek to influence government policies on behalf of their members or supporters.

• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Private organizations that operate independently from the government and work towards social, political, or environmental goals.

• Civil Society: The space in society where citizens can freely form associations, express their opinions, and participate in public life outside of the government.

China

Political System, Regimes & Government: One Party Communist System

1. Regime Type: Authoritarian, Communist

2. Government Structure:

• Unitary system with a centralized government controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

• President serves as the head of state, but the General Secretary of the CCP is the most powerful figure. The Premier is the head of government, though mainly a ceremonial role.

• Legislature: The National People’s Congress (NPC) is a rubber-stamp legislature that endorses decisions made by the Party leadership.

Key Features:

• Single-party rule, with the CCP controlling all aspects of political, economic, and social life.

• Strict censorship, surveillance, and repression of political dissent.

• Xi Jinping has centralized power, eliminating term limits for the presidency in 2018.

3. Political Freedoms: Very limited. China is known for its extensive censorship, mass surveillance, and harsh penalties for political opposition. Freedom of speech and press are tightly controlled, and any form of dissent is quickly silenced.

Political Institution: Communist Party State

Executive

• Top Leadership: The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) holds the most powerful position in the Chinese government, even more so than the President, who is the head of state.

  • The President and Premier are secondary to the General Secretary in terms of actual political power.

  • Xi Jinping has consolidated power, notably abolishing presidential term limits in 2018, further strengthening his role.

• Party-State Fusion: The Communist Party controls all aspects of governance, with no separation between the state and the party. Political appointments are made based on loyalty to the CCP.

Legislative

• National People’s Congress (NPC): The NPC is the highest legislative body, but it is largely a rubber-stamp institution, confirming decisions already made by the Party leadership.

• Function: The NPC formally enacts laws and approves budgets, but in practice, it has limited authority as it operates under the direction of the CCP.

Judiciary

• Party Control: The judiciary is not independent. Judges are often CCP members, and the courts are expected to align with Party policies.

• Lack of Rule of Law: The concept of rule of law is subordinate to the CCP's authority. Judicial decisions reflect the Party's interests rather than impartial legal principles.

Electoral System

• Indirect Elections: While China holds elections for local people's congresses and some lower-level offices, these elections are tightly controlled by the CCP. Political opposition is not allowed, and all candidates must be approved by the Party.

Political Culture and Participation: Authoritarian Political Culture and Limited Participation

Political Culture:

• Authoritarian Loyalty: Political culture in China is shaped by a one-party system under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). There is an emphasis on loyalty to the state and the CCP, with the cult of personality around leaders like Xi Jinping reinforcing the central role of the Party.

• Collectivism and Nationalism: Chinese political culture emphasizes collective harmony over individualism. Nationalism is also a powerful element, particularly regarding China's economic rise and sovereignty issues (e.g., Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the South China Sea).

• Conformity over Dissent: The political culture stresses stability and order, with a top-down approach to governance that minimizes room for political opposition or free expression.

Political Participation:

• Limited Participation: Political participation is restricted to channels that are controlled by the CCP. The National People’s Congress (NPC) holds periodic elections for local and regional offices, but the process is tightly controlled to ensure only Party-approved candidates run for office.

• Civil Society Constraints: Protests and public dissent are discouraged, and civil society is heavily regulated. The government employs extensive surveillance and censorship to monitor and suppress any form of political participation that challenges the Party's authority.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: One-Party System, Controlled Elections, and Restricted Civil Society

Political Parties:

• Chinese Communist Party (CCP): China is a one-party state, with the CCP as the sole political party in power. The CCP controls all aspects of government, policymaking, and political life. Other political parties exist, but they are not competitive and are aligned with the CCP in a united front.

• Lack of Political Pluralism: There is no political opposition or competition, and all political activity must align with the interests of the CCP. The Party monopolizes political authority, and citizens do not have access to alternative political ideologies or platforms.

Electoral System:

• Indirect Elections: While elections are held for local people’s congresses, they are tightly controlled by the CCP. There are no free, competitive elections at the national level.

• Single-Party Elections: Candidates are selected from within the CCP, and while elections take place at the local level, all candidates are pre-approved by the Party. The National People’s Congress (NPC), while formally a legislative body, merely ratifies decisions made by the CCP leadership.

Citizen Organizations:

• State-Controlled Civil Society: Citizen organizations and NGOs are heavily restricted in China. Independent civil society organizations are often monitored, restricted, or even shut down if they challenge the government or promote activities deemed subversive.

• Limited Political Participation: Civil society participation is largely channeled through government-approved groups, and any attempts at independent activism are suppressed by authorities, particularly on issues such as human rights or free speech.

Political & Economics Change: From Communist Revolution to Market Economy

Political Change:

• Communist Revolution (1949): China’s modern political history began with the 1949 Communist Revolution, which led to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) under Mao Zedong. This marked a dramatic shift from a feudal, semi-colonial society to a one-party totalitarian state.

• Maoist Era (1949-1976): During Mao's leadership, China pursued radical policies like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, which aimed to rapidly industrialize the country and promote Maoist ideologies but led to widespread economic hardship and social upheaval.

• Post-Mao Reforms (1978): After Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping initiated market reforms and economic opening with the Open Door Policy. The 1978 economic reforms led to the creation of a mixed economy combining socialist principles with market-driven elements, transforming China into a major global economic power.

• Authoritarian Stability (1989-Present): Politically, China has remained under the control of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), but the Party has maintained stability through authoritarian control and economic liberalization. The 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre demonstrated the state's intolerance for political dissent.

Economic Change:

• Planned Economy to Market Economy: China transitioned from a centrally planned economy under Mao to a market-oriented economy under Deng. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and foreign direct investment (FDI) spurred rapid industrialization and integration into the global market.

• World Trade Organization (WTO) Membership (2001): China’s entry into the WTO marked its full integration into the global economic system, which facilitated rapid growth, especially in manufacturing and export sectors.

• Recent Challenges: In recent years, China has faced economic slowdown, debt accumulation, and an over-reliance on state-owned enterprises. Xi Jinping’s leadership has focused on economic nationalism, technological innovation, and Made in China 2025 policies, but also increasing state control and crackdowns on private businesses, particularly in the tech sector.

Iran

Political System, Regimes & Government: Theocratic Republic

1. Regime Type: Hybrid Theocracy and Republic (Authoritarian)

2. Government Structure:

• Theocratic Republic, where religious leaders hold substantial power over political governance.

• Supreme Leader is the highest authority, holding control over the military, judiciary, and key political decisions.

• The President is elected and serves as the head of government, but his powers are limited compared to the Supreme Leader.

• Legislature: The Majles (Parliament) has limited power, and all candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (which is appointed by the Supreme Leader).

Key Features:

3. Wilayat al-Faqih doctrine gives ultimate authority to Shia clerics, with the Supreme Leader at the top.

• Elections for the presidency and parliament are controlled through the vetting process by the Guardian Council, which ensures candidates adhere to Islamic principles.

4. Political Freedoms: Limited. Theocratic rule restricts political freedoms, with limited freedom of speech, press, and assembly. Political opposition, particularly against the religious establishment, is suppressed.

Political Institution: Theocratic Republic

Executive

• Supreme Leader: The Supreme Leader holds the highest authority in Iran, controlling the military, judiciary, and all key political decisions. The Supreme Leader is appointed for life and holds ultimate power over the President and Parliament.

• President: The President is elected by the people but has limited executive power. The President is primarily responsible for domestic policy and administration, though his authority is constrained by the Supreme Leader and religious institutions.

Legislative

• Majles (Parliament): The Majles is an elected body with 290 members. It passes laws and ratifies treaties, but all its members must be approved by the Guardian Council, which ensures alignment with Islamic principles.

• Guardian Council: This body of 12 members (six appointed by the Supreme Leader, six by the Parliament) plays a crucial role in vetting candidates for the Majles, the Presidency, and other political offices, limiting political pluralism.

Judiciary

• Sharia Law: The judiciary is based on Islamic law (Sharia), and the Supreme Leader holds significant control over judicial appointments.

• Clerical Influence: Judges and legal institutions are influenced by religious principles, and courts have limited independence from the Supreme Leader's office.

Electoral System

• Theocratic Vetting: Elections occur regularly, but the Guardian Council ensures that only candidates loyal to the Islamic regime can run for office, restricting the scope for real political competition.

• Electoral Influence: While elections for the President and Parliament are competitive, candidates must adhere to Islamic ideals and gain approval from the ruling religious elite.

Political Culture and Participation: Theocratic and Controlled Participation

Political Culture:

• Religious and Political Duality: Political culture in Iran is influenced by a blend of Islamic theocracy and republicanism. The Supreme Leader holds ultimate authority, and the political system is deeply shaped by Shia Islamic principles.

• Piety and Loyalty to the Clergy: Iran's political culture places a high value on religious piety and loyalty to the Islamic establishment, which includes the clerical class and religious institutions.

• Political Divide: There is a significant division in political culture between hardliners (who support strict interpretations of Shia Islam and authoritarian rule) and reformists (who advocate for greater political and social freedoms).

Political Participation:

• Restricted Democratic Process: While Iran holds elections for the President, Majles (Parliament), and local offices, the Guardian Council ensures that only candidates who conform to Islamic principles and the regime’s ideological lines are allowed to run.

• Limited Political Freedoms: Public protests and calls for reform are met with heavy repression. The regime maintains control over political participation through restrictions on media, political organizations, and freedom of expression.

• Islamic Ideology in Governance: Political participation is closely tied to religious and ideological beliefs, making it difficult for secular or opposition voices to thrive.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: Theocratic System, Controlled Elections, and Active Citizen Movements

Political Parties:

• Political Factions within the Theocratic System: Iran has a multi-party system, but political parties must adhere to Islamic principles and the ideology of the Islamic Republic. The most prominent factions are the reformists, who advocate for moderate political changes, and the conservatives, who maintain traditional religious and political ideologies.

• Guardian Council Control: While multiple parties exist, the Guardian Council ensures that only candidates who are loyal to the theocratic regime are allowed to run for significant political offices, including the Presidency and the Majles (Parliament).

Electoral System:

• Theocratic Democracy: Iran has elections for the President, Majles (Parliament), and local councils, but all candidates must be vetted by the Guardian Council, which determines their political suitability based on loyalty to the Supreme Leader and Islamic principles.

• Limited Political Pluralism: Though elections take place, the system is not fully democratic. The influence of the Supreme Leader and the Guardian Council restricts the ability of non-ideological or reformist parties to compete fairly.

Citizen Organizations:

• State-Influenced Civil Society: While there is a degree of political activism and public dissent in Iran (especially from student groups, reformists, and women's movements), it is heavily regulated by the state. The government monitors NGOs, civil society groups, and protests, and activists face imprisonment or persecution.

• Islamic Revolution Legacy: Civil society is shaped by Islamic ideology, and political participation is often framed within the religious context of the state. However, reformist movements often challenge government policies and push for more personal and political freedoms.

Political & Economics Change: Revolution, Sanctions, and Economic Struggles

Political Change:

• Islamic Revolution (1979): Iran’s political landscape changed dramatically in 1979 when the Islamic Revolution overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy, leading to the establishment of the Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. Iran transitioned from a pro-Western autocracy to a theocratic republic.

• Theocratic Governance: Under the new system, political power is concentrated in the hands of religious leaders, with the Supreme Leader holding ultimate authority. The Guardian Council and Assembly of Experts have significant influence over political decisions.

• Post-Revolutionary Consolidation (1980s-1990s): In the 1980s and 1990s, Iran faced international isolation, the Iran-Iraq War, and internal economic hardships. The regime gradually consolidated power and began engaging in foreign diplomacy under moderate leaders like Mohammad Khatami.

• Reform and Confrontation (2000s-Present): While there have been periods of political reform (especially under Hassan Rouhani), the Supreme Leader maintains significant control. Iran faces international tensions over its nuclear program and sanctions from the West.

Economic Change:

• Nationalization to Economic Isolation: The 1979 revolution led to the nationalization of key industries, and Iran adopted a state-led economic model, including heavy reliance on oil exports. The economy became heavily centralized and state-controlled.

• Sanctions and Economic Crisis: Iran's economy has been deeply impacted by U.S. and UN sanctions, especially over its nuclear program. Sanctions on oil exports, banking, and international trade have led to economic stagnation, inflation, and high unemployment.

• Economic Diversification and Challenges: Iran has attempted to diversify its economy beyond oil, focusing on sectors like agriculture, mining, and technology. However, persistent political instability, sanctions, and the dominance of the Revolutionary Guard in the economy have hindered significant growth.

Mexico

Political System, Regimes & Government: Federal Republic

1. Regime Type: Democratic Republic

2. Government Structure:

• Federal system, with powers divided between the central government and 31 states.

• The President is both head of state and government, serving a single six-year term.

• Bicameral legislature: The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate are responsible for lawmaking.

        Key Features:

• Competitive multi-party system, with the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) having dominated for much of the 20th century but now replaced by more competitive political dynamics.

• Strong executive power, with a relatively weak legislature compared to the President.

• Corruption and drug cartel violence are major challenges.

3. Political Freedoms: Medium to high. Mexico is a democracy, with regular elections and a relatively free press, though corruption, violence, and political manipulation remain significant obstacles. Civil liberties and the rule of law are often undermined in regions dominated by drug cartels and organized crime.

Political Institution: Federal Republic

Executive

• President: The President is both the head of state and head of government in Mexico, and the position carries significant executive power.

  • Elected for a single six-year term (no re-election), the President has control over foreign policy, the military, and the budget.

• Political Power: The President enjoys significant autonomy, but Mexico’s federal structure and the legislature act as checks on presidential power.

Legislative

• Bicameral Congress: Mexico has a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.

  • The Senate represents states, while the Chamber of Deputies represents the people. Both houses have legislative powers, but the Chamber of Deputies is more influential in setting the national budget.

  • The legislature is divided along party lines, with several major parties competing for power, but the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party) had dominated politics for much of the 20th century.

Judiciary

• Independent Judiciary: The Supreme Court of Justice (SCJN) is the highest judicial body, and it is intended to be independent. The judiciary oversees laws and challenges to legislation, though it has been weakened by corruption and political pressures in the past.

• Rule of Law Issues: Mexico struggles with corruption in the judicial system, which weakens the institution’s ability to uphold the rule of law effectively.

Electoral System

• Multi-party System: Mexico has a multi-party system with free and competitive elections. Elections are held regularly, and the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) oversees the electoral process to ensure fairness.

• Election Integrity: While elections are generally competitive, corruption, violence (especially from drug cartels), and election fraud remain significant challenges.

Political Culture and Participation: Competitive Democracy and Active Participation

Political Culture:

• Democratic Engagement: Mexico has a strong democratic culture that has developed over the last few decades, particularly after the end of one-party rule by the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party). Citizens are generally politically engaged, and the culture is characterized by a focus on voting and political discourse.

• Corruption and Clientelism: Despite a growing democratic culture, corruption and clientelism remain pervasive in political culture. Many citizens feel that politics are still influenced by patronage and political networks rather than merit-based policies.

• Regional and Social Diversity: Political culture varies widely by region, with the north generally more pro-business and urban areas more progressive, while rural and southern areas are often more conservative or supportive of left-wing parties.

Political Participation:

• Regular Elections: Mexico has competitive elections with multiple political parties (including the PRI, PAN, and MORENA), and voter turnout is typically moderate. The Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) helps ensure the fairness of elections.

• Political Activism: Citizens participate actively in political campaigns, demonstrations, and protests, particularly around issues like corruption, human rights, and drug violence. However, political participation can be hindered by violence, particularly in regions affected by drug cartels.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: Multi-Party System, Competitive Elections, and Vibrant Civil Society

Political Parties:

• Pluralistic System: Mexico has a multi-party system, with several major political parties, including the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), National Action Party (PAN), and MORENA, which have dominated the political landscape in recent years.

• Transition to Democracy: While the PRI dominated Mexican politics for much of the 20th century, Mexico has shifted towards a more competitive system, with regular power transitions and more options for voters. In recent years, MORENA, under President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), has become a powerful political force.

Electoral System:

• Mixed-Member Proportional System: Mexico has a mixed electoral system that combines first-past-the-post voting for some legislative seats and proportional representation for others. This system aims to balance local representation with fair distribution of seats based on national party vote share.

• Free and Competitive Elections: Mexico's elections are competitive, and the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) ensures that elections are free and fair. However, challenges such as voter fraud, corruption, and violence (particularly from drug cartels) persist.

Citizen Organizations:

• Active Civil Society: Mexico has a vibrant civil society with numerous NGOs, social movements, and activist groups addressing a wide range of issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and labor rights.

• Political Participation: Citizens participate in protests, social campaigns, and grassroots organizing. Student protests, especially, have been significant, reflecting broader dissatisfaction with government policies or corruption.

Political & Economics Change: From One-Party Rule to Democratic Transition

Political Change:

• One-Party Rule (1929-2000): For most of the 20th century, Mexico was ruled by the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party), which maintained an authoritarian grip on power while holding elections that were largely symbolic.

• Transition to Democracy (2000-Present): In 2000, Mexico underwent a historic political shift with the election of Vicente Fox from the PAN (National Action Party), ending the PRI’s 71-year rule. The transition to a more democratic political system was solidified through reforms and a competitive political party system.

• Ongoing Challenges: Despite the democratization process, Mexico continues to struggle with corruption, drug cartel violence, and weak state institutions. The MORENA Party, led by Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), represents a leftward shift in recent politics, emphasizing economic nationalism and social reforms.

Economic Change:

• Import Substitution to NAFTA: Mexico's economy, initially based on import substitution industrialization (ISI) in the mid-20th century, began opening up in the 1980s. Mexico’s economic liberalization accelerated with the signing of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) in 1994, which integrated Mexico’s economy more deeply with the United States and Canada.

• Economic Liberalization and Challenges: While liberalization boosted manufacturing and exports, Mexico has faced widening inequality, low wages, and drug-related violence. Economic dependency on the U.S. remains a significant challenge.

• Recent Trends: Under AMLO’s administration, Mexico has pursued more protectionist economic policies, while still relying on the trade relationship with the U.S. The country also faces structural inequality and poverty.

Nigeria

Political System, Regimes & Government: Federal Republic

1. Regime Type: Democratic Republic

2. Government Structure:

• Federal system with a division of powers between the federal government and 36 states.

• The President is both head of state and head of government, elected for a four-year term.

• Bicameral legislature: The Senate (upper house) and the House of Representatives (lower house) make up the National Assembly.

Key Features:

• Nigeria operates a multi-party democracy, but ethnic and religious tensions influence political outcomes, particularly between the Christian-majority south and the Muslim-majority north.

• Corruption is pervasive, and military influence over politics has historically been strong.

3. Political Freedoms: Medium. Nigeria holds regular elections and has democratic processes, but political corruption, ethnic violence, and Islamist insurgencies (like Boko Haram) present major challenges to governance. The rule of law is weak in many areas, particularly in the north and the Niger Delta.

Political Institution: Federal Republic

Executive

• President: The President of Nigeria is both the head of state and head of government. Elected for a four-year term, the President has substantial powers over military decisions, foreign relations, and the federal budget.

• Power Struggles: Power in Nigeria is contested between various ethnic and religious groups, and the Presidency often rotates between different regions to maintain balance.

Legislative

• Bicameral National Assembly: The National Assembly is bicameral, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives.

  • The Senate represents each state, and the House of Representatives represents the population. Both houses pass laws, approve the budget, and hold the President accountable.

  • Party competition is intense, with PDP and APC being the dominant political parties.

Judiciary

• Independent Judiciary: Nigeria’s judiciary is intended to be independent, with the Supreme Court being the final court of appeal.

• Rule of Law Issues: However, corruption and political influence often undermine the judiciary’s effectiveness and impartiality.

Electoral System

• Federal Elections: Nigeria uses a federal system with elections held every four years for both the President and the National Assembly. Elections are highly competitive but often marred by violence, fraud, and ethnic/religious divisions.

Political Culture and Participation: Political Culture of Ethnic and Religious Divisions

Political Culture:

• Ethnic and Religious Politics: Nigeria's political culture is deeply shaped by ethnic and religious identities, with politics often revolving around the Nigerian north (largely Muslim) and south (mostly Christian). Political allegiances are frequently based on ethnic and religious lines.

• Corruption and Patronage: Corruption is endemic in Nigeria's political culture, and political participation is often tied to patronage networks that provide resources in exchange for loyalty. The dominance of elite political families also limits genuine democratic competition.

• Political Frustration: Despite the formal democratic framework, many Nigerians are disillusioned with the system due to economic inequality, military influence, and lack of basic services.

Political Participation:

• Electoral Process: Nigeria holds regular elections at the federal, state, and local levels. The Presidency and National Assembly elections are competitive, but voter fraud, violence, and ethnic/religious manipulation are common.

• Civil Society and Protests: Political participation is also expressed through protests (e.g., the #EndSARS movement) and civil society organizations. However, political activism is often stifled by government repression, including security forces cracking down on protests.

• Regional Influence: Ethnic and religious groups often exert disproportionate influence over the political process, which can undermine the development of a more unified national political culture.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: Ethnic-Based Party System, Distrustful Elections, and Fragmented Civil Society

Political Parties:

• Ethnically and Regionally Divided Parties: Nigeria’s political parties are deeply influenced by ethnic and religious identities. The two dominant parties are the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) and the All Progressives Congress (APC). Political loyalties are often divided along regional and ethnic lines (north vs. south, Muslim vs. Christian).

• Factionalism and Patronage: Political parties are frequently factionalized, and political patronage networks dominate the party system. These networks serve as key mechanisms for distributing power and resources.

Electoral System:

• Federal System with First-Past-The-Post: Nigeria operates under a federal system, with elections for the President, National Assembly, and state governors. The first-past-the-post system is used in presidential and legislative elections, which often leads to a winner-takes-all approach and leaves out smaller political groups.

• Electoral Fraud and Violence: While Nigeria holds regular elections, the process is marred by violence, fraud, and ethnic/religious manipulation. Electoral integrity is often compromised, especially in regions with high political instability.

Citizen Organizations:

• Weak Civil Society: While there is a growing civil society in Nigeria, it is often fragmented and regionally divided. Many NGOs and activist groups focus on issues like corruption, human rights, and environmental protection. However, political corruption and state repression limit the scope for activism.

• Public Protests: Protests, such as the #EndSARS movement against police brutality, reflect active political engagement, but they are often met with violent suppression by security forces.

Political & Economics Change: Independence, Military Rule, and Struggling Democracy

Political Change:

• Colonial Legacy (1960): Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960, but its early years were marked by ethnic conflict and political instability. This led to a series of military coups.

• Military Dictatorship (1966-1999): Nigeria experienced military rule for much of its post-independence history, with military leaders like Sani Abacha and Muhammadu Buhari controlling the country for decades.

• Democratic Transition (1999): In 1999, Nigeria transitioned to democracy under Olusegun Obasanjo, who became president in the country’s first civilian-led government in 16 years. Since then, Nigeria has maintained a democratic system with regular elections, but electoral fraud, corruption, and security challenges persist.

• Political Challenges: Nigeria’s political system remains fractured along ethnic, religious, and regional lines, with a significant divide between the north (largely Muslim) and the south (largely Christian).

Economic Change:

• Oil Boom and Rentier State: Nigeria’s economy is heavily dependent on oil exports, which has both fueled economic growth and contributed to corruption and resource mismanagement. The country is often seen as a rentier state, where oil rents finance the state but lead to unequal wealth distribution.

• Attempts at Diversification: Nigeria has made efforts to diversify its economy, focusing on agriculture, services, and manufacturing, but these efforts have been undermined by political instability, corruption, and insurgent violence in key regions.

• Economic Challenges: Youth unemployment, poverty, and underdevelopment remain significant issues, alongside high inflation and dependence on oil prices.

Russia

Political System, Regimes & Government: Authoritarian Semi-Presidential Republic

1. Regime Type: Authoritarian (Semi-Presidential System)

2. Government Structure:

• Federal system with a strong central government controlled by the President.

• The President is the head of state and government, holding significant power over both the legislature and judiciary.

• The State Duma (lower house) and Federation Council (upper house) form the bicameral Federal Assembly, but the legislative branch is largely subjugated to executive power.

      Key Features:

• Vladimir Putin has consolidated power over Russia's political system since 1999, undermining political opposition and press freedom.

• The state has centralized control over key sectors, including media, the economy, and the judiciary.

• Russia faces significant political repression, including the harassment and imprisonment of political opponents.

3. Political Freedoms: Low. Russia is largely considered an authoritarian state. While elections are held, the political environment is dominated by the ruling United Russia Party, with little space for meaningful opposition. Media freedom is restricted, and dissent is often repressed.

Political Institution: Authoritarian Semi-Presidential Republic

Executive

• President: The President holds the most powerful position in Russia, acting as both the head of state and the head of government. The President appoints the Prime Minister and controls key foreign and military policies.

  • Vladimir Putin has centralized power, and the presidency has become an authoritarian position with extended terms and limited checks.

Legislative

• Federal Assembly: Russia has a bicameral legislature, consisting of the State Duma (lower house) and the Federation Council (upper house).

  • The State Duma has legislative powers but is heavily controlled by the President’s party, United Russia, with limited opposition.

  • The Federation Council largely ratifies decisions made by the President.

Judiciary

• Judicial System: The judiciary is formally independent, but in practice, it is often subject to political influence. The Constitutional Court and Supreme Court are key bodies, but their decisions can be influenced by the Kremlin.

Electoral System

• Elections with Limited Competition: Russia holds elections for the Presidency and Parliament. However, Vladimir Putin’s control over the political landscape and suppression of political opposition has made elections non-competitive.

  • Media suppression and fraud in elections further undermine the democratic process.

Political Culture and Participation: Authoritarianism and Limited Participation

Political Culture:

• Centralized Power and Nationalism: Russia’s political culture has been shaped by a long history of autocratic rule, including the Soviet period. Under Vladimir Putin, there has been a resurgence of nationalism and a strong emphasis on state sovereignty and defending Russia’s interests on the global stage.

• Skepticism of Western Democracy: The political culture in Russia tends to be suspicious of Western-style democracy, often viewing it as a threat to Russia’s traditional values and sovereignty.

• Authoritarian Endorsement: A significant portion of the population supports authoritarianism, seeing it as the only way to maintain stability, order, and economic growth.

Political Participation:

• Controlled Elections: Although elections are held for the President and Duma (Parliament), Vladimir Putin’s government maintains tight control over the political environment, limiting real competition. Media control, censorship, and fraud in elections hinder genuine political participation.

• Limited Political Dissent: Political participation is constrained by laws that target political opposition, independent media, and NGOs. Protests are often met with repression and the arrests of demonstrators.

• Civil Society: Civil society participation is minimal, with non-governmental organizations and activists often facing harassment or persecution from the state.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: Authoritarian Parties, Controlled Elections, and Repressed Civil Society

Political Parties:

• Dominant Party System: Russia has a dominant-party system under the leadership of United Russia, the party that supports President Vladimir Putin. While there are opposition parties, they are weak and lack significant influence. The political system is characterized by limited competition and the dominance of one party.

• Party Centralization: United Russia effectively monopolizes political power, and other parties are either co-opted or marginalized. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) and the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) are the most significant opposition parties but are highly constrained in their actions.

Electoral System:

• Mixed-Member Proportional Representation: Russia’s electoral system is a mixed-member proportional representation system for parliamentary elections, where some members of the State Duma (lower house) are elected by first-past-the-post, and others are elected through proportional representation.

• Election Manipulation: Elections are held regularly, but they are widely seen as manipulated through fraud, voter suppression, and media control. Opposition candidates face political persecution, and the political environment is heavily tilted in favor of the Kremlin.

Citizen Organizations:

• Repressed Civil Society: Civil society in Russia is heavily repressed, with NGOs, human rights groups, and independent media outlets facing constant pressure from the state. Laws such as the foreign agents law restrict the operations of organizations that receive funding from abroad.

• Limited Political Participation: Public protests are rare and often met with harassment or arrests. Independent civil society organizations face immense challenges in operating freely due to state control and repression.

Political & Economics Change: Soviet Legacy, Transition to Capitalism, and Authoritarianism

Political Change:

• Soviet Era (1917-1991): Russia was part of the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. The Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 established a communist government, which was characterized by centralized power, state-controlled economy, and suppression of political dissent.

• Post-Soviet Transition (1991-Present): After the fall of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin led Russia through a period of economic liberalization, marked by privatization and the creation of oligarchs. The 1990s were also marked by political chaos, economic instability, and the Chechen wars.

• Putin’s Rise to Power (1999-Present): Vladimir Putin rose to power in 1999 and gradually consolidated control over the political system. Russia moved from a fragile democracy to a more authoritarian system, with increasing suppression of political opposition, independent media, and civil society.

• Authoritarian Stability: Under Putin, Russia has become a managed democracy, with tightly controlled elections, limited political competition, and significant political repression.

Economic Change:

• From Communism to Capitalism: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia transitioned from a state-controlled economy to a market-based economy, though the process was marked by privatization and the rise of oligarchs.

• Oil and Gas Dependence: Russia’s economy is heavily dependent on oil and natural gas exports, and fluctuations in global energy prices significantly impact its economic stability.

• Economic Stagnation and Corruption: While the economy has seen periods of growth, particularly during the oil boom of the 2000s, it faces significant challenges, including economic stagnation, sanctions from the West, and corruption within the political and economic systems.

UK

Political System, Regimes & Government: Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy

1. Regime Type: Constitutional Monarchy, Parliamentary Democracy

2. Government Structure:

• Unitary system with a parliamentary democracy.

• The Monarch (currently King Charles III) is the ceremonial head of state, with very limited powers under a constitutional monarchy.

• The Prime Minister is the head of government, typically the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons.

• Bicameral legislature: The House of Commons (elected) and the House of Lords (appointed and hereditary) form the Parliament.

      Key Features:

• The UK has a long tradition of democratic governance and political stability.

• The Parliament holds significant legislative power, and the Prime Minister leads the government.

• Devolution: Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have their own parliaments or assemblies with varying degrees of autonomy.

3. Political Freedoms: High. The UK enjoys extensive political freedoms, including free and fair elections, freedom of speech, and a free press. The rule of law is strong, and civil liberties are generally protected.

Political Institution: Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy

Executive

• Monarch: The Monarch (currently King Charles III) is the ceremonial head of state, with very limited powers defined by the Constitutional Monarchy.

• Prime Minister: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister has significant executive authority, especially in foreign affairs, defense, and economic policy.

Legislative

• Parliament: The UK has a bicameral parliament, consisting of the House of Commons (elected) and the House

Political Culture and Participation: Active Democracy and High Participation

Political Culture:

• Long-standing Democracy: The UK has a well-established democratic culture, with a tradition of political stability, constitutional monarchy, and parliamentary democracy.

• Pluralism and Debate: Political culture in the UK is characterized by pluralism, debate, and open discussion. Citizens are generally engaged in the democratic process, with a strong belief in the importance of voting, civil liberties, and political freedoms.

• Political Polarization: While the UK has a history of political consensus, recent years have seen increasing political polarization, particularly over issues like Brexit, leading to heightened partisanship.

Political Participation:

• Universal Suffrage and Voting: The UK holds regular, free, and fair elections, with high voter turnout in general elections. The House of Commons is the most influential legislative body, and elections are highly competitive, with the Labour Party, Conservative Party, and Liberal Democrats as major players.

• Protests and Activism: The UK has a vibrant culture of political activism, and protests on issues such as climate change, human rights, and inequality are common. Civil society is robust, with active trade unions, NGOs, and advocacy groups.

• Political Parties and Public Engagement: Voters actively engage with political parties, participate in public debates, and express political opinions through various media and online.

Party, Electoral Systems, & Citizen Organizations: Pluralistic Party System, First-Past-The-Post Elections, and Active Civil Society

Political Parties:

• Multi-Party System: The UK has a multi-party system, with the Conservative Party, Labour Party, and Liberal Democrats being the main political players. Smaller parties like the Scottish National Party (SNP) and Green Party also hold significant regional influence.

• Partisan Competition: Political parties in the UK are ideologically diverse, with the Conservative Party leaning right and the Labour Party leaning left. The Liberal Democrats advocate for center-left policies.

Electoral System:

• First-Past-The-Post (FPTP): The UK uses the first-past-the-post system for general elections to the House of Commons, where each constituency elects one representative. This system tends to favor larger parties and often results in single-party governments with clear mandates.

• Majoritarian Democracy: While FPTP is criticized for not reflecting the proportionality of votes in parliament, it generally ensures stable governance with less fragmentation.

Citizen Organizations:

• Vibrant Civil Society: The UK has a robust civil society with many NGOs, social movements, and activist groups. Citizen participation is high, with political debates, campaigning, and public protests being central features of political life.

• Freedom of Expression: Civil society is active, with protections for freedom of speech, assembly, and association. Citizens can organize protests, engage in political campaigns, and actively influence policy decisions.

Political & Economics Change: Gradual Political Reforms and Economic Modernization

Political Change:

• Parliamentary Democracy: The UK’s political system has been defined by its evolution into a parliamentary democracy over centuries, starting with the Magna Carta (1215), which limited the power of the monarchy.

• Industrial Revolution and Political Expansion: The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries transformed the economy and led to political reforms such as universal suffrage and democratic elections.

• Recent Political Shifts: The UK has faced several political challenges, including Brexit (2016), which marked the country’s decision to leave the European Union. Brexit has created significant political and economic uncertainty, reshaping the UK’s relationship with Europe and the world.

Economic Change:

• Industrialization to Service Economy: The UK was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, which made it the world’s leading economic power for much of the 19th century. However, the UK has transitioned to a service-based economy, particularly in finance (especially in London).

• Post-War Welfare State: After World War II, the UK established a welfare state, including the National Health Service (NHS), social security, and state-owned industries. In the 1980s, under Margaret Thatcher, the UK moved towards neoliberal reforms, privatizing industries and reducing the role of the state in the economy.

• Economic Challenges: The UK faces challenges such as income inequality, housing crises, and the economic aftermath of Brexit, which has led to labor shortages, trade disruptions, and economic instability.