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Imperialism: A policy where a nation extends its power and influence over other territories through diplomacy or military force. In U.S. history, imperialism became prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as the U.S. sought to expand its influence in Latin America, Asia, and the Pacific, leading to conflicts like the Spanish-American War and the annexation of territories like Puerto Rico and the Philippines.

John Hay: U.S. Secretary of State from 1898 to 1905. Hay is known for his role in formulating the Open Door Policy toward China, which aimed to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China and preserve its territorial integrity during the period of imperialist competition.

Open Door Policy: A diplomatic initiative by the U.S. (initiated by John Hay) in 1899 to ensure that all foreign nations had equal access to trade with China, preventing any one country from dominating the region. This policy reflected U.S. interests in maintaining access to Chinese markets without directly controlling the territory.

Boxer Rebellion: An anti-foreign, anti-imperialist uprising in China from 1899 to 1901, led by the "Boxers" (a nationalist group). It was aimed at expelling foreign influence from China. The U.S. and other foreign powers intervened militarily to suppress the rebellion, and China was forced to pay reparations.

Guano Islands Act: A U.S. law passed in 1856 that allowed the U.S. to claim uninhabited islands containing guano (bird droppings used as fertilizer). This law symbolized American expansionism and the desire for new territories and resources.

Hawaii: The U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898, a major event in American imperialism. Initially a sovereign kingdom, Hawaii became a strategic military and economic outpost for the U.S., particularly after the establishment of the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor.

Porfirio Díaz: The president of Mexico from 1876 to 1911, Díaz maintained a stable but authoritarian regime. He was largely supported by foreign investors, including U.S. businesses. His rule ended when he was overthrown during the Mexican Revolution, leading to significant political and social upheaval.

Victoriano Huerta: A Mexican general who seized power in a coup in 1913, overthrowing President Francisco I. Madero. Huerta’s authoritarian rule led to U.S. intervention, as President Wilson opposed his regime. Huerta was eventually forced out of power by revolutionary forces.

Venustiano Carranza: A leader of the Mexican Revolution who became president of Mexico in 1917. Carranza sought to establish a more democratic government and drafted the 1917 Constitution, which included progressive reforms in land and labor.

Pancho Villa: A prominent Mexican revolutionary leader and guerrilla fighter who fought against both the Mexican government and U.S. interests. Villa is best known for his role in the Mexican Revolution and for his raids into the U.S., which led to a punitive expedition led by General John J. Pershing.

John J. Pershing: A U.S. Army general who led the punitive expedition into Mexico in 1916 to capture Pancho Villa. He later played a significant role in World War I, commanding American forces in Europe.

Spanish-American War: A conflict in 1898 between Spain and the U.S. that resulted in the U.S. defeating Spain and acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The war marked the emergence of the U.S. as a global imperial power.

Philippine-American War: A conflict from 1899 to 1902 between the U.S. and Filipino insurgents who were resisting American imperial control of the Philippines. The U.S. defeated the insurgents, and the Philippines remained a U.S. colony until 1946.

Valeriano Weyler: A Spanish general known for his harsh tactics in suppressing the Cuban revolt against Spanish rule. His "reconcentrado" policy of forcing civilians into camps led to widespread suffering and contributed to U.S. public support for the Cuban insurgents.

U.S.S. Maine: An American battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898, killing 266 U.S. sailors. The incident was a major catalyst for the Spanish-American War, with many Americans blaming Spain for the explosion (though the cause was likely an internal accident).

“Yellow Journals”: Refers to sensationalist newspapers, especially those led by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, that exaggerated and distorted news in order to increase circulation. These newspapers played a significant role in stirring up public support for the Spanish-American War.

Rough Riders: A volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War. The Rough Riders gained fame for their charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba, contributing to the U.S. victory.

Treaty of Paris of 1898: The agreement that ended the Spanish-American War. Under the treaty, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. and gave Cuba its independence, marking the U.S.’s rise as an imperial power.

Emilio Aguinaldo: The leader of the Filipino independence movement who fought against Spanish colonial rule and later against American imperialism during the Philippine-American War. Aguinaldo’s resistance was eventually crushed, and the Philippines became a U.S. colony.

Anti-Imperialist League: A group formed in the late 19th century that opposed the U.S. annexing the Philippines and other territories acquired after the Spanish-American War. Key members included Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie, who argued that imperialism violated American principles of democracy and self-determination.

Alfred Thayer Mahan: A U.S. naval officer and historian whose ideas on naval power were influential in shaping U.S. foreign policy. His book The Influence of Sea Power upon History argued that control of the seas was key to global dominance, which helped fuel American imperial ambitions.

“Big Stick” Diplomacy: A foreign policy strategy associated with Theodore Roosevelt, where the U.S. would use military power as a threat to back up diplomatic efforts. The phrase comes from Roosevelt's saying, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," indicating that the U.S. should negotiate peacefully but be ready to use force if necessary.

Dollar Diplomacy: A foreign policy approach under President William Howard Taft that aimed to extend U.S. influence through economic means, particularly by encouraging U.S. businesses to invest in foreign countries, especially in Latin America and East Asia.

Roosevelt Corollary: An extension of the Monroe Doctrine articulated by Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the U.S. would intervene in Latin American countries if they were experiencing instability or unrest, particularly to prevent European intervention.

Chinese Exclusion Act: A 1882 U.S. law that prohibited Chinese immigration, reflecting racial and economic fears about Chinese laborers competing with American workers. The Act was the first significant federal law to restrict immigration based on race and ethnicity.

Gentlemen’s Agreement: An informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan in 1907-1908, where Japan agreed to limit emigration of its citizens to the U.S., and in return, the U.S. would allow Japanese immigrants already in the country to maintain their rights. It was a response to growing anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S. and aimed to ease tensions between the two nations.