AP GOV REVIEW PT 2

State legislatures set the boundaries of U.S. Congressional districts.
Option proposed by opponents: Independent commissions to avoid gerrymandering and partisan redistricting.

Reapportionment is the process of reallocating the 435 seats in the House of Representatives based on changes in population, which happens every ten years.
Redistricting is the redrawing of district boundaries within each state to reflect changes in population after reapportionment.

The interstate commerce clause gives Congress the power to regulate commerce between the states, which significantly expands its authority in areas like business, trade, and civil rights.

Initiation: Any member of Congress can introduce a bill.
The bill is referred to committees for discussion and amendments.
If it passes through committees, it goes to the House or Senate for debate and vote.
If both chambers pass the bill, it’s sent to the President for approval or veto.

Delegate: A congressperson who acts based on the preferences of their constituents.
Trustee: A congressperson who makes decisions based on their own judgment and what they believe is best for the country.

Senate Majority Leader: The leader of the majority party in the Senate, sets the legislative agenda.
Senate Minority Leader: The leader of the minority party, opposes the majority.
Whip: Both in the House and Senate, the whip assists leadership in maintaining party discipline and vote counts.
Speaker of the House: The leader of the House of Representatives, responsible for assigning legislation to committees and managing debate.

Senate: Can approve treaties, confirm presidential appointments (e.g., judges, cabinet members), and conduct impeachment trials.
House: Initiates revenue bills, has the power to impeach, and elects the president if there’s no majority in the Electoral College.
Shared Powers: Both can propose laws, override vetoes, and conduct investigations.
Term Length:
- Senate: 6 years
- House: 2 years

Standing Committees: Permanent committees that handle legislation in specific areas, e.g., House Ways and Means (taxation, Social Security) and Senate Judiciary Committee (judicial nominations and legal matters).
House Ways and Means Committee: Decides on tax laws and social programs like Social Security.
Senate Judiciary Committee: Reviews judicial nominations and judicial issues.
House Rules Committee: Decides the rules for debate on bills in the House.
Conference Committee: Resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Congress checks the judiciary by confirming or rejecting presidential judicial appointments and by having the power to amend the Constitution or impeach judges.

Chief Executive: Enforces laws (via the executive branch).
Commander in Chief: Commands military forces.
Chief Legislator: Influences lawmaking by recommending bills and vetoing laws.
Chief Diplomat: Negotiates treaties and foreign agreements.
Chief of State: Represents the U.S. symbolically at home and abroad.
Chief Economic Planner: Oversees economic policy, prepares the budget.

Formal Powers: Vetoing laws, appointing federal judges, commanding the military.
Informal Powers: Using the bully pulpit to influence public opinion, issuing executive orders.

Congressional approval for presidential policies is more likely if the president has public support or if Congress is aligned with his party.
Not likely when there is divided government or significant opposition.

The bureaucracy refers to the agencies and departments within the executive branch that implement laws and policies.

Independent agencies are federal organizations not part of any cabinet department. Examples include:
- CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)
- EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

The cabinet is a group of senior advisors who head executive departments. Examples include:
- Secretary of Defense
- Secretary of State

The EOP consists of the president's closest advisors. Examples include:
- Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
- National Security Council (NSC)

District Courts: The trial courts where cases begin.
Court of Appeals: Hear appeals from the District Courts.
Supreme Court: The highest court; cases typically come from the Court of Appeals or state supreme courts with significant legal issues.

Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to hear a case, depending on location and subject matter.

Judicial review allows the courts to declare laws and actions unconstitutional. It was established in Marbury v. Madison (1803).

Baker v. Carr (1962): Established the principle of one person, one vote in legislative redistricting.
Shaw v. Reno (1993): Ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional.

Amicus Curiae: "Friend of the court" briefs submitted by interested third parties.
Independent Agencies: Agencies outside the executive departments, e.g., EPA.
Rule of 4: At least 4 Supreme Court justices must agree to hear a case.
Administrative Law: Law created by administrative agencies through regulations.
Pork-Barreling: Legislation that provides local benefits to constituents in exchange for political support.
Congressional Oversight: The review of the executive branch's activities by Congress.
Executive Agreements: Agreements between the president and foreign leaders that do not require Senate approval.
Stare Decisis: The principle that courts should follow precedents in deciding cases.
Divided Government: When different parties control the presidency and Congress.
Cloture: A Senate motion to end a filibuster with a 3/5 majority.
Filibuster: A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill.
Writ of Certiorari: A request to the Supreme Court to review a lower court's decision.
Participatory Democracy: A system where citizens actively participate in decision-making (e.g., voting, public protests).