ART HISTORY EXAM 1

Introduction to Art History 

What is art history? 

Art history is the study of art and its visual components as well as how they relate to cultural significance. While definitions of art may vary, the fine arts are renown as the visual arts: painting, sculpting, and architecture. The subject of art history was developed during the 15 to 20th century. It emphasized the classical tradition and medieval words. 

Why is studying art important? 

Art is reflective of the human condition and capable of cultivating intense emotions. Historians typically analyze form and cultural significance in relation to the art piece. One thing to note is that interpretations of specific pieces constantly shift and transform over time, and usually reflect contemporary society. 

Art: Formal analysis 

A formal analysis is an analysis of the artwork's visual components. In order to do this, it's important to understand style, cultural significance, subject matter, function, and critical thought. 

Tips for analyzing art 

1. Analyze the visual components 

2. analyze the subject matter 

3. Apply the historical context 

Terms and definitions 

• Scale - Size 

• Composition - Arrangement of forms 

• Pictorial space - Illusion of 3d space 

• Form - The subject or solids (people, nature, objects, etc.) 

• Line - Creates forms 

• Color - Creates contrast 

• Light - Creates shadows 

• Tone - The amount of Lightness of Darkness in a color 

• Texture - Visual / tactile quality of a surface 

• Pattern - Repetition of a form 

• Foreground - Front 

• Background  - Back (behind the horizon) 

• Orthogonals - Lines that converge at a vanishing point 

• Contour lines - Separate forms 

• Charoscuro  - Contrast of a 3d form 

• Veracity - Accuracy 

• Naturalism - Accurate precise portrayal of a subject 

• Abstraction - Not accurate 

• What is art history?

• Art history is the study of art and its visual components in relation to its cultural significance. Historical context typically reveals cultural values relating to the art piece. 

• Why is art important?

• Art is important because it communicates vital themes, inspires thought, evokes emotion, and reflects cultural perspectives and values. 

• What are the fine arts?

• The fine arts refers to visual arts. This includes painting, sculpting, and architecture. 

• What is a visual analysis and how do you conduct one?

• A formal analysis is an analysis of an artwork's visual components. In order to conduct a visual analysis:

1. Analyze the overarching visual components 

2. Analyze the iconography 

3. Implement the history 

• Art terms for conducting a visual analysis: 

• Scale - size 

• Pictorial space - illusion of 3d

• Composition - arrangement of forms 

• Tecture - textile quality 

• Pattern - repetition of a form 

• Color - creates contrast 

• Light - creates shadow 

• Tone - lightness or darkness of a color 

• Foreground - closer to viewer 

• Background - farther from viewer 

• Veracity - accuracy 

• Form / iconography - The subject or objects 

• Naturalism - precise and accurate 

• Abstraction - idealized 

• Contour lines - separate forms 

• Orthogonals - lines that meet at a vanishing point 

• Chiaroscuro - contrast of 3d 

• Introduction to prehistoric art 

• What is prehistoric art? 

• Refers to art created before the introduction of literacy

• Typically characterized by simple stone paintings 

• What is the difference between BCE and CE? 

• BCE = Alternative to BC; counts down. 

• CE = Counts up 

• What are the three periods of the stone age and their characteristics?

• Peolithic: old stone age 

Historical Characteristics: nomadic people, Uncivilized, primary objective is survival, hits and pits  for homes, 

Art: Used chipped stone tools, lack of religion, portable and stationary art pieces like figurines and cave paintings. “Venus of Willendorf” , natural earth color, animal subjects. 

• Mesolithic: Middle stone age and development of civilization and order 

Historical Characteristics: Introduction of agriculture and settlements, cultivated civilization, cemeteries, etc. 

Art: Red color palette, Human subjects, Painted pebbles and beads, huts, cemeteries, pit houses, etc. 

• Neolithic: New stone age and development of technology 

Historical Characteristics: Villages, agriculture, specialized jobs, etc. 

Art: sculptures, pottery, gender forms, monuments, megaliths, stone hedges,

• What are the periods of the iron age and their characteristics? 

• Bronze age → Began in Europe and used bronze as a medium for art. Established an artisan class. 

• Iron age → Anthropomorphic statues, abstract designs, mythical animals, etc.

Ancient Mesopotamia 

• What are characteristics about ancient mesopotamia?

• Ancient mesopotamia was located east to the mediterranean, in asia minor. The land was fertile and optimal for agriculture and had multiple water sources nearby. The origin of the name translated to “the land between rivers” in Greek. It is theorized that early settlements and civilization arose due to floods. Ancient Mesopotamia, much like Greece, was divided into city states. Over the course of its history, multiple civilizations have maintained rule over the territory. The north, for example, was ruled by the Akkadians, while the south was dominated by the sumerians. The Sumerians were known for their technological advancements and early forms of writing. They are credited with developing the first form of written script: pictographs were carved into clay slabs using a stylus. 

• Mesopotamia power struggle: The region was eventually dominated by the Akkadians, later seized by the Guti, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, and ultimately, the Neo- babylonians. Each culture was identified by unique characteristics. 

• The akkadians: Ruled Northern Mesopotamia. They spoke in semitic language and constructed ziggurats. 

• The babylonians: The Amorites, ruled by Hummarabi, took control over the area. He established a strict law code. 

• The assyrians: The Assyrians specialized in their warrior culture 

Standard of Ur:

What is a “standard”; and how do we think it was used?

• The standard of ur came from ur or present day Iraq. Standard was originally a battle flag, however, the origins of the word are not fully known. 

Where was the Standard discovered?

• Ur, or present day Iraq. 

What is a register?

• Layers of visual narrative storytelling. They're like platforms that each contain a subject. 

What appears to be depicted on the two long sides of the object?

• One long side 

What is lapis lazuli, and from where was it imported?

• Blue rock imported in modern day afghanistan. 

What is depicted in each register on the first side?

• People and animals (civilians) → Peace and prosperity 

How do we know which figure is the “king”?

• The tallest figure 

What is depicted on the second side of the Standard?

• Chariots (3rd register) and long lines of soldiers (hierarchy) → structure and discipline; the actual battle takes place on the middle register 

What is depicted in each of the three registers on the second side of the Standard?

Lamassu:

What was in the citadel?

• The guardian figures known as “Lamassu” that protected the gates and the citadel. They were powerful and fearsome looking — an extension of the king’s powers. 

What is a monolithic stone?

• The medium used to carve the Lamassu statues. 

What is a relief sculpture?

• A relief sculpture moved the Lamassu into place. They wre essentially decorations within the citadel. 

What are the various animal elements depicted on the lamassu?

• A hybrid form with the body of a bull or lion, the wings of an eagle, and a human head — a combination of wisdom and intelligence. 

How can we interpret the inclusion of five legs on the lamassu

• It suggests movement from the side and stability from the front — defensive, watchful, and wise, almost as if in judgement of who is allowed to enter the citadel. 

The Law code of Hummarabi 

What is a stele?

• A slab of stone with intricate carvings on it. They typically depict male potency, kings, and mythical scenes. 

What is the script and the language used on the stele?

• Cuneiform, written in the akkadian language. 

What are the three parts of the script?

• Prologue (carving where the king looks at the god shamash) 

Who is Shamash, and how do we know he is a god in the image?

• Shamash is the god of Sun. He holds authority over the king. (Divine law as opposed to civil law)

What is a composite view?

What aspect of the image suggests that Shamash gives Hammurabi the divine law?

• The God, larger is on the right, he bears a horned crown and flames — representing divinity. 

What is the aim of the epilogue of the text?

• Advancement of mesopotamia. 

Introduction to Ancient Egypt 

Characteristics of Egyptian culture

Egyptian History: 

What is a dynasty? And when did the first ones occur in Egypt?

• A dynasty is a line of hereditary rulers within a region. In predynastic Egypt, the region was ruled by chiefdoms and ruling families as opposed to a centralized monarch. 

What are the two major kingdoms of ancient Egypt?

• Upper and lower Egypt were the two major kingdoms of Egypt. Upper Egypt dominated lower Egypt in order to form a centralized, consolidated state. This marked the transition from city states to a unified nation. 

What was the attitude towards Egyptian kings during the Early Dynastic Period?

• The dynastic period of ancient Egypt was ruled not by chieftains, but by a centralized monarch. The ancient Egyptians were highly religious. They constructed temples for their deities, while kings were thought of as gods. They believed in harmony, goodwill and prosperity, and their art focused on abstraction as opposed to naturalism. Kings themselves were often deified. 

What are the four crowns of kingship? And what shape do they take and with which regions are they associated? 

• In ancient Egyptian art, three crowns symbolized kingship, which were associated with specific regions. The myth of Egypt’s unification depicts the story of a king conquering the upper and lower regions of Egypt before unifying it. A tall, white crown was associated with upper Egypt, A flat red cap was associated with lower Egypt, and a double crown represented unified Egypt. 

How does the development of ancient Egyptian figural and architectural conventions express political power in the Old Kingdom?

• The Old kingdom was a prosperous period of political stability. This period of prosperity was reflected in the art and architecture of its time — the great pyramids and sculptures like Menkaure and queen. The great pyramids, for example, were built by four dynasty kings. The site was carefully planned to follow the sun’s east /  west path, while its angled sides may have represented the sun’s sloping rays. The time, thought, care and precision that went into their construction is representative of a period of peace — the Egyptians were unburdened by war and turmoil, and therefore had the time to construct the pyramids. Similarly, Menkaure and Queen is a metaphorical sculpture that is meant to represent the characteristics and virtues that ought to be embodied by a king: permanence and dignity. These characteristics define the old kingdom period as a time of prosperity and technological advancements. 

What are the four structures of a pyramidal complex?

What happens politically that marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom?

• It preceded the collapse of the old kingdom. It was characterized by the recovery of political instability, heavy emphasis on a strengthened army, foreign presence, and border expansion. During this period, art reflected an acknowledgement of human vulnerability as opposed to glorified rulers during the old kingdom period. 

How is the head of Senusret III different from the Seated Khafre?

• The head of Senusret depicted forlorn, vulnerable features as opposed to Khafre. The acknowledgement of human vulnerability was a stark contrast to prior depictions of rulers. 

Why is it called the Amarna period?

• The Amarna period, part of the new kingdom, refers to the reign of Akhenatan — the emperor who created a new religion in reference to the sun  god, aten. He proclaimed the sun god as the supreme god and therefore, changed his name and built temples in his honor. This period marked a shift from the worship of a multitude of Gods to one overarching God. 

How are the political and religious changes reflected in the art and architecture during the period?

• Portraits of Queens: Demonstrates that aristocratic women held significant political power as opposed to prior generations. 

• Glassmaking: characterizes the amarna period as an epicenter of glass-production and riches. 

Definitions: 

Define mastaba → A flat temple. 

Define twisted perspective

Define Canon of Proportions

Art Pieces:

Focused topic: Palette of Narmer

• Dynastic period (2950 BCE) 

• Material: schist 

Focused topic: Great Pyramids

• Old Kingdom period (2575-2450 BCE)

• Material: Limestone 

• Purpose: Honor the Gods and represent the grandiosity of the sun, burial chambers for royalty, an extension of religion, etc. 

Focused topic: Menkaure and Queen

• Old Kingdom period (2490-2472)

• Material: graywacke

• Purpose: Reflect Egyptian ideals regarding what a king should be — the epitome of authority, glory, etc.  

Focused topic: Head of Senusret III

• Middle Kingdom Period 

• Purpose: Capture the vulnerability of leadership as opposed to its glorification. It also served as a symbol of hope and inspiration. 

Focused topic: Akhenaten and His Family

• New Kingdom Amarna Period (1353 - 1336 BCE) 

• Material: Limestone 

• Purpose: Depict family life during the Amarna period 

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Ancient Egpyt Notes 

Pre-dynastic period → ruled by chiefdoms and ruling families as opposed to a central monarch. 

Dynastic period → Ruled by a central monarch and the consolidation of egypt as a state. 

• Characteristics of the dynastic period: The ancient Egyptians were highly religious. They constructed temples for their deities, while kings were thought of as gods. They believed in harmony, goodwill, and prosperity. Their art focused on abstraction as opposed to naturalism. Tombs and temples were covered with colorful scenes. They also built funeraries, which placed great emphasis on the afterlife. They believed that one's life force or their soul was essential and therefore created mummification. Royals were placed in burial chambers. 

1. Old kingdom → A period of political stability, military expansion, and elaborate tomb complexes. 

• The great pyramids: The site was carefully planned to follow the sun’s east and west trajectory, while the angled sides represented the sun’s rays. 

• Menkaure and Queen: A piece that reflected Egyptian ideals that were associated with a monarch. 

1. First intermediate period 

2. Middle kingdom → Preceded the collapse of the Old Kingdom, it was characterized by the recovery of political instability, heavy emphasis on a strengthened military, border expansion and foreign presence. 

• Portrait of Senusret III: This portrait represented the vulnerability of leadership. Contrary to the Old kingdom, which characterized kings as the pinnacle of glory and strength, brought awareness to the vulnerabilities of leadership.  The authenticity of this portrait may have served as a symbol of hope. 

• Additional art: Rock-cut tombs, Funerary stelae, town planning, etc. 

3. Second intermediate period

4. New kingdom (Amarna) → During this period, Egypt was characterized as a stable, fortified empire — resulting from Thutmose III’s military campaigns and diplomacy after a period of instability. He conquered nearby lands and was the first to use the honorific of “Pharaoh” which translated to “Great house.”

• Temple complexes: Thebes was the religious epicenter at the time. 

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Egyptian Art Pieces 

Palette of  Narmer 

Where was the Palette of Narmer discovered?

• The palette was discovered in Hierakonpolis, or modern day Kom el-Ahmar in Egypt by the British archaeologist, James Quibell.  

What is a low-relief sculpture?

• A type of carving where the slightly project from a flat background, rather than being fully three dimensional. 

What is unusual about the scale of the Palette of Narmer?

• It is unusually large, suggesting that it was ceremonial. 

How was the palette used?

• It served a ceremonial purpose. 

What conventional formal and iconographic characteristics can be found on the palette?

• Hierarchical scale, composite view, registers (horizontal bands, etc.)

What are the two hieroglyphic elements that form Narmer’s name in the upper register?

1. Catfish (Nar)

2. Chisel (Mer)

What is a serpopard?

• A serpopard is a mythical creature that resembles a leopard with an elongated neck. 

What elements on the palette support an interpretation that the object celebrates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt?

• The two crowns, intertwined serpopards, papyrus plants, etc. 

Akhenaten and Family 

What is significant about the Amarna Period compared to the previous periods of Egyptian history?

• 1350 BCE: Transitional religious period shifting from the worship of multiple deities to one supreme deity, Aten. 

Who is Aten?

• Aten is the sun God. 

What is the difference between monotheism and pantheism 

• Monotheism is the belief in a single God that is distinct from the universe. While Pantheism is the belief that God and the universe are one and the same. In essence, Monotheism views God as a separate, personal entity, while pantheism views God as the universe itself. 

How is Aten represented in the relief?

• Aten is represented as overseeing the family, dominating the image as the supreme God. The rays that terminate the king and queen hold the symbols for life, suggesting that he is blessing or approving of the couple. 

What is the difference between monotheism and polytheism?

• Monotheism believes in a single God, while Polytheism worships multiple Gods. 

What is the significance of Nefertiti's throne?

• She has a more elaborate throne as opposed to her husband — signifying the female role in Egyptian society. 

Unit 5: Ancient Greece 

Reading Guide:

What aspects of Greek geography, history, and religion create the background for the emergence of its ancient art and architecture?

Where in the region do we find Greek trading colonies?

• Athena (peloponnese) 

What led to the development of city-states?

• The fall of the bronze age. 

When did Athens begin to rise to prominence? 

• Archaic age. 

According to the Greek religion, how was the world created? 

• According to ancient Greek legend, the creation of the world involved a battle between the earth gods, called Titans, and the sky gods. The victors were the sky gods, whose home was believed to be atop Mount Olympus in the northeast corner of the Greek mainland. 

What makes the Greek religion different from Egypt or Mesopotamia?

• The Greeks saw their gods as immortal and endowed with supernatural powers, but they also visualized them in human form and attributed to them human weaknesses and emotions to a greater extent than the Egyptian

What are the major differences between Greek and Egyptian sanctuaries?

• Egyptian builders dramatized the power of gods or god-rulers by organizing their temples along straight, processional ways. The Greeks, in contrast, treated each building and monument as an independent element to be integrated with the natural features of the site in an irregular arrangement that emphasized the exterior of each building as a discrete sculptural form on display.

What are the distinguishing features of ancient Greek art during its Geometric and Orientalizing phases?

• Geometric period: During the geometric period, ceramic production flourished — athenians created both sculpture and vessels decorated with organized abstract designs. What we call the Geometric period flourished in Greece between 900 and 700 BCE, especially in the decoration of ceramic vessels with linear motifs, such as spirals, diamonds, and cross-hatching.

• Orientalism: By the seventh century BCE, painters in major pottery centers in Greece had moved away from the dense linear decoration of the Geometric style, preferring more open compositions built around large motifs—real and imaginary animals, abstract plant forms, and human figures. Greek painters did not simply copy the work of Eastern artists, however. Instead, they drew on work in a variety of media—including sculpture, metalwork, and textiles. 

How were kraters used during the Geometric period?

• For utilitarian purposes like storing water, wine, or oil. 

How were small bronze sculptures likely used during the Geometric period?

During the Orientalizing period, from where did the motifs originate?

Where did the Orientalizing style originate?

What are the characteristic stylistic and thematic features of ancient Greek art and architecture during the Archaic period?

What does archaic mean, and why was it used to describe the early period in Greek art and architecture?

• Archaic means antiquated, old-fashioned and primitive. Despite this, the period was marked by progressive advancements and flourishing achievements. 

Definitions 

Define amphora → A Jar for storing oil or wine 

Define city-state → A state that governs its own politics and economy. 

Define krater → A type of greek vessel 

Define sanctuary → A sacred enclosure used for worship. It consisted of altars, shrines, and natural elements such as food offerings. 

Define temenos → An enclosed sacred area reserved for worship. 

Define kore → A free-standing commemorative sculpture made of wood, terracotta, limestone, or marble. This refers to a female sculpture. 

Define kouros → A commemorative sculpture made of wood, terracotta, limestone, or marble. This refers to a male sculpture. Kouroi, nearly always nude, have been variously identified as gods, warriors, and victorious athletes. Because the Greeks associated young, athletic males with fertility and family continuity, the kouroi figures may have symbolized ancestors.

Define black-figure technique → An ancient ceramic decoration technique 

Focused Topics

Focused topic: Geometric Krater

Focused topic: Man and Centaur

Focused topic: Exekias, Achilles and Ajax playing Dice 

Focused topic: Anavyos Kuoros

Anavysos Kouros 

• Life-like sculpture representing male youth or potency. These figures were used as grave markers, offerings, and representations of the Gods. They were typically made of wood, terracotta, limestone, or marble.  It was likely that they were inspired by contact with ancient Egypt, who originated this practice. 

• Soft depiction of facial figures, regal posture, traditional headbands, archaic smile representing aristocratic nobility,  and curls. 

Define idealization

How was the kouros used in ancient Greece?

• These figures were used as grave markers, offerings, and representations of the Gods. 

From where did the idea of a monumental sculpture originate?

• Ancient egypt. 

How does the Anavysos Kouros differ stylistically from earlier examples?

Define naturalism

• Accurate precision of a subject. 

What are the characteristics of the stance or pose of the kouros?

Define Archaic Smile

• Representative of the aristocracy 

The Classical Architectural Orders 

Styles of ancient greek architecture: (decorative systems) 

Dorian 

Ionic

Corinthian 

The Early Classical Period 

The Greeks established an ideal of beauty that has endured in the Western world to this day. Scholars have associated Greek Classical art with three general concepts: humanism, rationalism, and idealism

• The ancient Greeks believed the words of their philosophers and expected to see them embodied in their art: “Man is the measure of all things,” that is, seek an ideal based on the human form; “Know thyself,” seek the inner significance of forms; and “Nothing in excess,” reproduce only essential forms. In their embrace of humanism, the Greeks even imagined their gods as perfect human beings. But the Greeks valued human reason over human emotion. They saw all aspects of life, including the arts, as having meaning and pattern; in their view, nothing happened by accident. It is not surprising that great Greek artists and architects were not only practitioners but also theoreticians

• Art historians usually divide the Classical into three phases based on the formal qualities of the art: the Early Classical period (c. 480–450 BCE), the High Classical period (c. 450–400 BCE), and the Late Classical period (c. 400–323 BCE). The Early Classical period begins with the defeat of the Persians in 480–479 BCE by an alliance of city-states led by Athens and Sparta. The expanding Persian Empire had posed a formidable threat to the independence of the city-states, and the two sides had been locked in battle for decades until the Greek alliance was able to repulse a Persian invasion and score a decisive victory.

• In any case, the period that followed the Persian Wars, extending to about 450 BCE, saw the emergence of a new stylistic direction, away from elegant stylizations and toward a sense of greater faithfulness to the natural appearance of human beings and their world.

• The English words “classic” and “classical” both come from the Latin word classis, referring to the division of people into classes based on wealth. But they do not mean the same thing today. “Classic” has come to mean “first class” or “the standard of excellence,” and in the most general usage, a “classic” is something—a book, a car, a film, even a soft drink—thought to be of lasting quality and universal esteem. However, the meaning of “Classical” is different. In art history, it refers to the work of Greek artists in the fifth century BCE, who sought to create ideal images based on strict mathematical proportions. 

Marble Sculpture: Advancement from the kouroi

• Greek sculptors had moved far from the stiff postures and rigid frontality of the Archaic kouroi to more relaxed poses in lifelike figures such as the so-called KRITIOS BOY of about 480 BCE (FIG. 5–27). The softly rounded body forms, broad facial features, and calm expression give the figure an air of self-confident seriousness.

• We see here the beginnings of contrapposto, the convention (later developed in full by High Classical sculptors such as Polykleitos) of presenting standing figures with opposing alternations of tension and relaxation around a central axis that will dominate Classical art.

Bronze sculpture

• Development of the lost-wax process in hollow-cast bronze gave Greek sculptors the potential to create more complex action poses with outstretched arms and legs. These were very difficult to create in marble, since unbalanced figures might topple over and extended limbs might break off due to their weight. Bronze figures were easier to balance, and the metal’s greater tensile strength made complicated poses and gestures technically possible.

• The painted underside of an Athenian kylix (broad, flat drinking cup) portrays work in a late Archaic foundry for casting life-size figures (FIG. 5–28), providing clear evidence that the Greeks were creating large bronze statues in active poses as early as the first decades of the fifth century BCE.

• A spectacular and rare life-size bronze, the CHARIOTEER (FIG. 5–29), cast about 470 BCE, documents the skills of Early Classical bronze-casters. It was found in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi together with fragments of a bronze chariot and horses, all buried during an earthquake in 373 BCE that may have saved them from the fate of most ancient bronzes, which were melted down so the material could be recycled into new works. According to its inscription, the sculptural group commemorated a victory in the Pythian Games 

The Riace Warriors 

• Shipwreck as well as earthquake has protected ancient bronzes from recycling. As recently as 1972, divers recovered a pair of heavily corroded, larger-than-life-size bronze figures from the seabed off the coast of Italy, dating from about 460–450 BCE. Initially, a scuba diver in the Ionian Sea near the beach resort of Riace thought he had found a human elbow and upper arm protruding from sand about 25 feet beneath the sea. Taking a closer look, he discovered that the arm was made of metal, not flesh, and was part of a large statue. After centuries underwater, however, the bronze Warriors were corroded and covered with accretions. The clay cores from the casting process were still inside, adding to the deterioration by absorbing lime and sea salts.

Ceramic painting 

• Greek potters and painters continued to work with the red-figure technique throughout the fifth century bce, refining their ability to create supple, rounded figures posed in ever more complicated and dynamic compositions. One of the most prolific Early Classical artists was Douris, whose signature appears on over 40 surviving pots decorated with scenes from everyday life as well as mythological subjects. His conspicuous skill in composing complex figural scenes that respond to the available pictorial fields of a variety of vessel types is evident in a frieze of frisky satyrs that he painted c. 480 BCE around the perimeter of a psykter

• Ex: Douris frolicking satyrs → Like the krater, the psykter was a vessel meant for use in drinking parties known as symposia—lively, elite male gatherings that focused on wine, music, games, and love making—and the decoration was chosen with this context in mind. The seeming acrobatic virtuosity of the satyrs’ movements is matched by the artist’s own virtuosity in composing them as an interlocking set of diagonal gestures that alternately challenge and follow the bulging form around which they are painted. 

• Ex: A youth pouring wine into the kylix of a companion: For the well-educated reveler using this cup at a symposium, there were several possible readings for the scene. This could be the legendary Athenian king Kekrops, who appears, identified by inscription, in the scene Douris painted on the underside of the kylix. Also portrayed there are Zeus and the young Trojan prince Ganymede, whom the supreme god abducted to Olympus to serve as his cup-bearer. Or, since the symposia themselves were sites of amorous interactions between older and younger men, the user of this cup might have found his own situation mirrored in what he was observing at the bottom of the cup while he drank.

Wall paintings 

• Although ancient Greek commentators describe elaborate, monumental wall paintings and discuss the output and careers of illustrious painters from the fifth and fourth centuries bce, almost nothing of this art has survived. We rely heavily on ceramics to fill gaps in our knowledge of Greek painting, assuming that the decoration of these more modest, utilitarian vessels reflects the glorious painting tradition documented in texts.

• Ex; symposium scene → They may demonstrate the deceased’s elevated social status, since only wealthy aristocrats participated in such gatherings. The symposium could also represent funerary feasting or a vision of the pleasures that await the deceased in a world beyond death.

The High Classical Period 

→ The High Classical period of Greek art lasted only a half-century, 450–400 BCE. The use of the word “high” to qualify the art of this time reflects the value judgments of art historians who have considered this period a pinnacle of artistic refinement, producing works that set a standard of unsurpassed excellence. Some have even referred to this half-century as Greece’s “Golden Age,” although these decades were also marked by turmoil and destruction. Without a common enemy, Sparta and Athens turned on each other in a series of conflicts known as the Peloponnesian War. Sparta dominated the Peloponnese peninsula and much of the rest of mainland Greece, while Athens controlled the Aegean and became the wealthy and influential center of a maritime empire. Perikles dominated Athenian politics and culture from 462 BCE until his death in 429 BCE. Although comedy writers of the time sometimes mocked him, calling him “Zeus” and “The Olympian” because of his haughty personality, he was a dynamic, charismatic political and military leader. He was also a great patron of the arts, supporting the use of Athenian wealth for the adornment of the city and encouraging artists to promote a public image of peace, prosperity, and power. 

The Acropolis 

• Athens originated as a Neolithic akropolis, or “city on top of a hill” (akro means “high” and polis means “city”), that later served as a fortress and sanctuary. As the city grew, the Acropolis became the religious and ceremonial center devoted primarily to the goddess Athena.

• After Persian troops destroyed the Acropolis in 480 BCE, the Athenians vowed to keep it in ruins as a memorial, but Perikles convinced them to rebuild it, arguing that this project honored the gods, especially Athena, who had helped the Greeks defeat the Persians. Perikles intended to create a visual expression of Athenian values and civic pride that would bolster the city’s status as the capital of the empire. He chose his close friend Pheidias, a renowned sculptor, to supervise the rebuilding and assembled under him the most talented artists in Athens.

• Perikles was severely criticized by his political opponents for this extravagance, but it never cost him popular support. In fact, many working-class Athenians-—laborers, carpenters, masons, sculptors, and the farmers and merchants who kept them supplied and fed—benefited from his expenditures.

The Parthenon 

• Sometime around 490 BCE, Athenians began work on a temple to Athena Parthenos that was still unfinished when the Persians sacked the Akropolis a decade later. In 447 BCE Perikles commissioned the architects Kallikrates and Iktinos to design a larger temple using the existing foundation and stone elements. The finest white marble was used throughout—even on the roof, in place of the more usual terra-cotta tiles (FIG. 5–37). The planning and execution of the Parthenon (dedicated in 438 BCE) required extraordinary mathematical, mechanical, and artistic skills

• One key to the Parthenon’s sense of harmony and balance is an attention to proportions—especially the ratio of 4:9, expressing the relationship of breadth to length and the relationship of column diameter to space between columns. Also important are subtle refinements of design, deviations from absolute regularity made to create a harmonious effect when the building was actually viewed. 

• Pediments: As with most temples, sculpture in the round filled both pediments of the Parthenon, set on the deep shelf of the cornice and secured to the wall with metal pins. Unfortunately, much of the sculpture has been damaged, lost, or removed to museums over the centuries.

• Metopes: The all-marble Parthenon had two sculptured friezes, one above the outer peristyle and another atop the cella wall inside. The Doric frieze on the exterior had 92 metope reliefs depicting legendary battles symbolized by combat between two representative figures: a centaur against a Lapith (a mythical people of pre-Hellenic times); a god against a Titan; a Greek against a Trojan; and a Greek against an Amazon (one of the mythical tribe of female warriors sometimes said to be the daughters of the war god Ares). Each of these struggles represented for the Greeks the triumph of reason over passion.

• Processional frieze: Enclosed within the Parthenon’s Doric peristyle, a continuous, 525–foot-long Ionic frieze ran along the exterior wall of the cella. Since the eighteenth century, its subject has been seen as a procession celebrating the festival that took place in Athens every four years, when the women of the city wove a new wool peplos and carried it to the Akropolis to clothe an ancient wooden cult statue of Athena. Both the skilled riders in the procession (FIG. 5–40) and the graceful but sturdy young walkers (FIG. 5–41) are representative types, ideal inhabitants of a successful city-state. The underlying message of the frieze is that Athenians are a healthy, vigorous people united in a democratic civic body favored by the gods.

• Statue of Athena Parthenos: Pheidias’s colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena—outfitted in armor and holding a shield in one hand and a winged Nike (Victory) in the other—which was installed in the temple and dedicated in 438 BCE (FIG. 5–42). The original has vanished, but descriptions and later copies allow us a clear sense of its appearance and its imposing size, nearly 40 feet tall.

Polykleitos Spear Bearer:

• Just as Greek architects defined and followed a set of standards for ideal temple design, Greek sculptors sought an ideal for representing the human body. Studying actual human beings closely and selecting the attributes they considered most desirable—such as regular facial features, smooth skin, and particular body proportions—sculptors combined them into a single ideal of physical perfection.

• The best-known theorist of the High Classical period was the sculptor Polykleitos of Argos. About 450 BCE, balancing careful observation with generalizing idealization, he developed a set of rules for constructing what he considered the ideal human figure, which he set down in a treatise called the Canon (kanon is Greek for “measure,” “rule,” or “law”). To illustrate his theory, Polykleitos created a bronze statue of a standing man carrying a spear—perhaps the hero Achilles. Neither the treatise nor the original statue has survived, but both were widely discussed in the writings of his contemporaries, and later Roman artists made marble copies of the Spear Bearer (Doryphoros)

• The Roman marble copy of the SPEAR BEARER (FIG. 5–43) shows a male athlete perfectly balanced with the whole weight of the upper body supported over the tense and straight (“engaged”) right leg. The relaxed left leg is bent at the knee, with the left foot poised on the ball of the foot, suggesting the weight shift that comes before and after movement. The pattern of tension and relaxation is reversed in the arrangement of the arms, with the right relaxed on the engaged side, and the left bent to support the weight of the (missing) spear.

Athena Nike 

• The Ionic Temple of Athena Nike (victory in war), located south of the Propylaia, was designed and built about 425 BCE, probably by Kallikrates (SEE FIG. 5–44). Reduced to rubble during the Turkish occupation of Greece in the seventeenth century CE, the temple has since been rebuilt.

• Between 410 and 405 BCE, this temple was surrounded by a parapet or low wall faced with sculptured panels depicting Athena presiding over the preparation of a celebration by winged Nikes (victory figures). The parapet no longer exists, but some panels have survived, including the celebrated NIKE (VICTORY) ADJUSTING HER SANDAL (FIG. 5–47). The figure bends forward gracefully, allowing her chiton (tunic) to slip off one shoulder. Her large, overlapping wings effectively balance her unstable pose

The Hellenistic Period 

The Hellenistic Period 

• Reign of Alexander the Great: When Alexander died unexpectedly at age 33 in 323 BCE, he left a vast empire with no administrative structure and no accepted successor. Almost immediately his generals turned against one another, local leaders fought to regain their lost autonomy, and the empire began to break apart. By the early third century BCE, three of Alexander’s generals—Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus—had carved out kingdoms. The Antigonids controlled Macedonia and mainland Greece; the Ptolemies ruled Egypt; and the Seleucids controlled Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia.

• Characterizing hellenistic art: Alexander’s lasting legacy was the spread of Greek culture far beyond its original borders, but artists of the Hellenistic period developed visions discernibly distinct from those of their Classical Greek predecessors. Where earlier artists sought to codify a generalized artistic ideal, Hellenistic artists shifted focus to the individual and the specific. They turned increasingly away from the heroic to the everyday, from gods to mortals, from aloof serenity to individual emotion, and from decorous drama to emotional melodrama. Their works appeal to the senses through luscious or lustrous surface treatments and to our hearts as well as our intellects through expressive subjects and poses.

Architecture and Art 

• In the architecture of the Hellenistic period, a variant of the Ionic order that had previously been reserved for interiors—called Corinthian by the Romans and featuring elaborate foliate capitals—challenged the dominant Doric and Ionic orders 

• The Corinthian TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS (FIG. 5–59), located in the lower city of Athens at the foot of the Akropolis, was designed by the Roman architect Cossutius in the second century bce on the foundations of an earlier Doric temple, but it was not completed until three centuries later, under the patronage of the Roman emperor Hadrian

• Theaters: In ancient Greece, the theater was more than mere entertainment: It was a vehicle for the communal expression of religious beliefs through music, poetry, and dance. In very early times, theater performances took place on the hard-packed dirt or stone-surfaced pavement of an outdoor threshing floor. During the fifth century bce, the plays were usually tragedies in verse based on popular myths and were performed at festivals dedicated to Dionysos; the three great Greek tragedians—Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides—created works that would define tragedy for centuries.

• Sculptures: Hellenistic sculptors produced an enormous variety of work in a wide range of materials, techniques, and styles. The period was marked by two broad and conflicting trends. One trend emulated earlier Classical models; sculptors selected aspects of favored works of the fourth century bce and incorporated them into their own work. The other (sometimes called anti-Classical or Baroque) abandoned Classical strictures and experimented freely with new forms and subjects. This style was especially strong in Pergamon and other eastern centers of Greek culture. Ex; athena attacking the giants 

• The Laocoon: pergamene artists may have inspired the work of Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros, three sculptors on the island of Rhodes named by Pliny the Elder as the creators of the famed LAOCOÖN AND HIS SONS (FIG. 5–65). This work has been assumed by many art historians to be a Hellenistic original from the first century bce, although others argue that it is a brilliant copy, a creative adaptation, or a Hellenistic-style invention commissioned by an admiring Roman patron in the first century CE. The complex sculptural composition illustrates an episode from the Trojan War when the priest Laocoön warned the Trojans not to bring within their walls the giant wooden horse left behind by the Greeks. The gods who supported the Greeks retaliated by sending serpents from the sea to destroy Laocoön and his sons as they walked along the shore. The struggling figures, anguished faces, intricate diagonal movements, and skillful unification of diverse forces in a complex composition all suggest a strong relationship between Rhodian and Pergamene sculptors

• The Nike of Samothrace: This winged figure of Victory (FIG. 5–66) is even more theatrical than the Laocoön. In its original setting—in a hillside niche high above the theater in the Sanctuary of the Great Gods at Samothrace, perhaps drenched with spray from a fountain—this huge goddess must have reminded visitors of the god in Greek plays who descends from heaven to determine the outcome of the drama.

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Greek Art and Architecture: Classical vs. Hellenistic Periods

The Early Classical Period (480–450 BCE) → Shifting from  abstraction to reason 

• Greek art was guided by humanism, rationalism, and idealism—seeking beauty, reason, and balance in all aspects of life.

• The Persian Wars (480–479 BCE) united city-states and led to a shift toward realistic depictions of human forms.

• Artists moved away from rigid Archaic kouroi figures to more naturalistic sculptures, such as the Kritios Boy, which introduced contrapposto (a relaxed pose with weight shifted to one leg).

• The development of hollow-cast bronze sculpture allowed for more dynamic, lifelike action poses.

• Red-figure ceramics flourished, depicting mythological and everyday life scenes with greater complexity.

The High Classical Period (450–400 BCE) → The height of Greek art Golden age or flourishment of art 

• Often called Greece’s "Golden Age," this period saw unparalleled artistic refinement despite internal strife (Peloponnesian War).

• Perikles led Athens, commissioning the grand reconstruction of the Acropolis after its destruction by the Persians.

• The Parthenon, designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates, exemplified mathematical harmony with its 4:9 proportions and intricate sculptural details:

  • Metopes: Symbolic battles (Greek vs. Trojan, gods vs. Titans).

  • Processional frieze: Celebrated Athenian democracy and civic unity.

  • Athena Parthenos: A colossal gold-and-ivory statue by Pheidias.

• Polykleitos developed the Canon, setting ideal proportions for the human figure, illustrated by the Spear Bearer (Doryphoros).

The Hellenistic Period (323–31 BCE) → Post- Alexander the Great; focused more an emotion 

• Following Alexander the Great's death, his empire fractured, spreading Greek culture but fostering regional artistic diversity.

• Artists abandoned strict idealism for emotion, drama, and individualism, favoring:

  • Dynamic movement and extreme expressions (Laocoön and His Sons).

  • Dramatic, theatrical compositions (Nike of Samothrace).

  • Everyday realism and psychological depth in figures.

• Architectural styles evolved, favoring the ornate Corinthian order (Temple of Olympian Zeus).

Key Differences: Classical vs. Hellenistic Art