ELL How to do things with English?

Overview

Topic: English Language and LinguisticsFocus: How to effectively communicate in English, emphasizing the interplay of language, meaning, and context.

Pragmatics

Definition: The study of contextual meaning and how language is used in practical situations.

Key aspects:

• When to talk: Understanding appropriate timing in conversations.

• What to say: Choosing relevant and suitable content during communication.

• Pacing & pausing: The effect of speech tempo and pauses on listener comprehension.

• Listenership: Recognizing the reactions and understanding of the audience.

• Intonation: How vocal tone can alter meaning beyond just words.

• Indirectness: The use of subtleties in language to convey messages without directness.

• Cohesion & coherence: Maintaining logical and understandable flow in discourse.

Understanding Context

Widdowson: "The study of what people mean by language in social contexts," highlighting the dynamic nature of language. Fromkin & Rodman: "Meaning in context," emphasizing that meaning arises from interaction rather than isolated phrases.Types of context:

• Linguistic context: Previous spoken or written material that influences interpretation.

• Situational context: External factors such as world knowledge and situational cues impacting dialogue.

Importance of Style

Comparison of informal vs formal style:

• Casual language: "Thanks" vs formal: "Thank you very much." Essential in determining appropriateness based on audience.

• Greetings: "Hi" vs formal: "Good afternoon," showing respect for context.

• Requests: "Can you give me a hand?" vs formal: "I’d appreciate it if you could assist me."

• Opinions: "Great idea!" vs formal: "In my opinion, that is an excellent suggestion." Articulating view points varies with context.

Contextual Considerations

Relationship dynamics: The influence of personal connections on the effectiveness of communication.Professional roles and relative ages: Understanding how hierarchical structures and age-related factors impact appropriateness and communication style.

Pronouns

Definition: Lexical items that derive meaning from other noun phrases (NPs) within sentences, affecting clarity of speech.Antecedent: The noun phrase that a pronoun refers back to (e.g., Sara - "her"), crucial for maintaining coherence in conversation.Context sensitivity: Pronouns are intertwined with syntax, discourse, and situational context which influences interpretation.

Reflexive Pronouns

Definition: Pronouns that direct attention back to the subject (e.g., himself, themselves).

Condition: Must have an NP antecedent within the same clause for proper use (e.g., "Jane bit herself.").

Examples demonstrating incorrect usage: Highlighting common pitfalls for learners of language.

Pronouns in Discourse

Role of pronouns: Indicate previously mentioned entities, aiding in maintaining coherence.

Importance of prior context: For accurate interpretation of references (e.g., understanding who "him/her" refers to based on context).

Deixis

Definition: Reference that depends heavily on situational context (e.g., expressions like "this person," "that man").

Importance of situational context: Notifying how context shapes the understanding of expressions used in conversation.

Types of Deixis

Time deixis examples: Words like now, tomorrow, last week show time reference.

Place deixis examples: Terms such as here, there distinguish spatial locations.

Different Types of Deictic Expressions

• Person deixis: Referring to the speaker vs. others (e.g., me, us vs. him, them).

• Spatial deixis: Indicating locations relative to the speaker (e.g., here, behind me vs. there, over yonder).

• Temporal deixis: Marking time references (e.g., now, this morning vs. then, next year).

Understanding Situational Context

Nature of discourse: Often contains omitted elements (e.g., missing verbs or clauses), requiring inferencing.Communicative understanding: Supported by grammatical rules and contextual knowledge, illustrating how much of language relies on reader/listener assumptions.

Conversational Maxims

• Maxim of Quantity: Ensuring the right amount of information is provided in response.

• Maxim of Quality: Steering clear of false claims and ensuring truth in statements.

• Maxim of Relation: Staying relevant to the topic at hand during conversation.

• Maxim of Manner: Ensuring clarity, brevity, and logical order in language use.

Example: Hamlet

Illustrated dialogue showcases conversational ambiguity and violations of maxim principles, reflecting on character intent and situational impact.

Violations of Maxims in Hamlet

Discussion of how Hamlet's responses serve as examples of under-informing, over-informing, and relevance violations, impacting the flow of dialogue.

Speech Acts

Language as action: Language functions as a tool for enacting promises, issuing warnings, etc.Definition of performative verbs: Including examples such as bet and promise, which convey actions beyond mere statements.

Recognizing Performative Verbs

Characteristics of performative sentences: Feature the subject as speaker, presented in affirmative, present tense (e.g., "I hereby apologize.").Examples of correct usages: Highlight the nuances in the application of performatives in conversation.

Three Forces of Speech Acts

• Locutionary force: The literal meaning of words spoken comprising the foundational elements.

• Illocutionary force: The underlying intention behind a statement, revealing the speaker's purpose.

• Perlocutionary effect: The actual outcome or response elicited from the listener following the communication.

Examples of Speech Acts

Illustrated through various conversations demonstrating locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary actions, highlighting their interconnectedness.

Politeness & Face

Concept of "face": Refers to a public self-image that requires careful management in interactions.

• Positive face: The desire to be liked and accepted.

• Negative face: The wish to be respected and recognized as independent.

Impact of Politeness

Cost-benefit analysis: Engaging in evaluating potential face threats within speech acts.Importance of politeness: Essential for managing social interactions and ensuring amiable communication.

Degrees of Directness

• On record: Communicating through polite and bald requests.

• Off record: Utilizing indirect requests, drawing on subtleties to imply rather than state directly.

Types of Requests

Direct Requests: Utilizing imperative, explicit, or hedged forms to convey needs.Indirect Requests: Employing conventionally indirect and nonconventional hints to suggest without demanding.

External Modifications in Requests

Techniques to soften or enhance requests such as prep statements and grounds to increase willingness of compliance.

Identifying Request Types

Classification of provided examples into categories of direct or indirect requests based on phrasing and contextual cues.

Sample Request Scenario

An example illustrating how a student may approach a teacher for an extension on a deadline using polite language and citing personal challenges.

Understanding Implicit Communication

Examination of scenarios that showcase informal interpretations of requests and expectations within family dynamics. For instance, a student might say, "I hope you don’t mind me asking, but I’ve been facing some challenges that have made it difficult to meet the deadline. Would it be possible to discuss an extension?" This demonstrates a respect for authority while conveying the context of their request without directness.