Study Guide Exam 1

Introduction/Cells

1. Anatomy vs. Physiology

   • Anatomy = Structure of the body (what it looks like).

   • Physiology = Function of the body (how it works).

   • Example: The heart’s anatomy = four chambers; the heart’s physiology = pumps blood.

2. Levels of Structural Organization

   • Smallest to largest: Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

   • Example: Muscle cells → Muscle tissue → Heart → Circulatory system → Human body

3. Characteristics Necessary for Life

   • Things your body must do to stay alive:

     • Maintain boundaries (skin/cell membranes)

     • Move (muscles, blood flow)

     • Respond to stimuli (nerves)

     • Digest food

     • Metabolize (convert food into energy)

     • Excrete waste

     • Grow & reproduce

4. Homeostasis & Feedback Loops

   • Negative feedback = Balances the body (most common). Example: Sweating to cool down.

   • Positive feedback = Amplifies a process. Example: Blood clotting or childbirth contractions.

5. Body Cavities & Regions

   • Main cavities: Cranial (brain), Thoracic (chest/lungs/heart), Abdominal (digestive), Pelvic (reproductive/bladder).

   • Regions help locate organs & pain areas (ex: belly pain = lower right quadrant = appendix issue).

6. Plasma Membrane & Key Proteins

   • Plasma membrane = Cell’s outer layer, controls what goes in/out.

   • Key proteins:

     • Receptors (receive signals)

     • Transport proteins (move stuff in/out)

     • Anchoring proteins (give cell structure)

7. Intercellular Junctions (Connections between cells)

   • Tight junctions = Prevent leaks (ex: intestines).

   • Desmosomes = Hold cells together (ex: skin).

   • Gap junctions = Allow communication (ex: heart).

8. Diffusion, Osmosis, Active Transport

   • Diffusion = Stuff moves from high to low concentration (no energy needed).

   • Osmosis = Water moving to balance concentrations.

   • Active Transport = Moves stuff against concentration (needs energy, ATP).

   • Carrier proteins: Channels, pumps, and transporters that help move molecules.

Epithelial Tissue

1. Tissue Prep & Sectioning for Microscopy

   • Steps: Fixing (preserving), Embedding (supporting tissue), Sectioning (slicing thinly), Staining (enhancing contrast).

   • Challenges: Hard to slice curved/hollow structures evenly.

2. Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

   • Covers & lines organs

   • Tightly packed cells

   • Avascular (no blood vessels) but gets nutrients from below

3. Types of Epithelia

   • Simple (one layer) vs. Stratified (multiple layers)

   • Shape matters:

     • Squamous (flat, ex: lungs)

     • Cuboidal (cube, ex: kidneys)

     • Columnar (tall, ex: intestines)

4. Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands

   • Exocrine = Secretes into ducts (ex: sweat, saliva).

   • Endocrine = Secretes into blood (ex: hormones).

   • Secretion types: Merocrine (exocytosis), Apocrine (part of cell breaks off), Holocrine (entire cell bursts).

5. Embryonic Tissue Layers → Mature Tissues

   • Ectoderm → Skin, nerves

   • Mesoderm → Muscles, bones, blood

   • Endoderm → Digestive & respiratory lining

6. Membranes (Cutaneous, Mucous, Serous)

   • Cutaneous = Skin (dry).

   • Mucous = Lines moist areas (ex: mouth, intestines).

   • Serous = Surrounds organs, reduces friction (ex: heart, lungs).

Connective Tissue

1. Characteristics of Connective Tissue

   • Supports & connects body parts

   • Lots of extracellular material (fibers, ground substance)

2. Types of Connective Tissue Cells & Functions

   • Fibroblasts (make fibers)

   • Macrophages (eat invaders)

   • Adipocytes (fat storage)

3. Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

   • Fibers: Collagen (strong), Elastic (stretchy), Reticular (support)

   • Ground substance: Gel-like fluid filling spaces

4. Scurvy & Collagen

   • Scurvy = Vitamin C deficiency → weak collagen → weak tissues (bleeding gums, bruising).

5. Types of Connective Tissue (Location & Function)

   • Bone (support)

   • Cartilage (cushioning, ex: joints)

   • Blood (transport)

   • Adipose (fat) (stores energy)

6. Perichondrium Role

   • Covers cartilage → Provides nutrients & helps with growth.

7. Tissue Growth, Repair & Loss

   • Hypertrophy = Cells get bigger

   • Hyperplasia = More cells

   • Atrophy = Cells shrink

   • Fibrosis vs. Regeneration (scar tissue vs. full healing)

8. Stem Cell Types

   • Totipotent = Can become any cell

   • Pluripotent = Can become most cells

   • Multipotent = Limited to specific tissue types

9. Stages of Wound Healing

   • Inflammation → Clotting → New tissue formation → Remodeling (scar formation)

Integumentary System (Skin)

1. Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis Roles

   • Epidermis = Protection (outermost layer)

   • Dermis = Strength, sensation (middle layer)

   • Hypodermis = Fat storage, insulation (deepest layer)

2. Epidermal Layers (Deep → Superficial)

   • "Come Let’s Get Sun Burned"

     • Corneum (dead cells)

     • Lucidum (only in thick skin)

     • Granulosum (keratin production)

     • Spinosum (strength)

     • Basale (new cell growth)

3. Factors Affecting Skin Color

   • Melanin (pigment)

   • Hemoglobin (redness)

   • Carotene (yellow tint)

4. Hair Follicle Structure & Function

   • Arrector pili muscle = Goosebumps

   • Sebaceous glands = Oil production

5. Hair Growth Cycle

   • Anagen (growth) → Catagen (transition) → Telogen (resting)

6. Fingernail Structure

   • Keratinized cells

   • Nail root, bed, plate, lunula

7. Cutaneous Gland Secretions

   • Sebaceous (oil) vs. Sudoriferous (sweat - eccrine & apocrine)

8. Burn Categories

   • 1st degree = Epidermis only

   • 2nd degree = Epidermis + part of dermis

   • 3rd degree = Entire skin layer destroyed

9. Rule of Nines (Burn Assessment)

   • Divides body into sections to estimate % of burn coverage.

10. Skin Cancers & ABCD Rule

• Basal cell, squamous cell, melanoma (worst)

• ABCD: Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color variation, Diameter >6m