Glossary

kinship: the system of relationships traditionally accepted by a particular culture and the rights and obligations they involve

totem: a spirit being, sacred object, (such as plant or animal) that acts as the emblem of a group of people, such as a family, lineage, or tribe

dispossession: the action of depriving someone of land, property, or other possessions

native title: the rights which Aboriginal people have to land and waters according to their customary laws, but viewed from, and recognised by, the Australian legal system

Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities

• Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming

• discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming

  • kinship

  • ceremonial life

  • obligations to the and and people

• dreaming: refers to Aboriginal beliefs about creation and existence

• includes stories of ancestor spirits that shaped the world and still abide in the land (sacred sites)

• establishes rules governing relationships between the people, land, and everything else

• meta temporal: links together past, present, and future

kinship

• the system of relationships traditionally accepted by a particular culture and the rights and obligations they involve

• the only way an Aboriginal child learns about their way of life, history, and spirituality is through their kin

• teaches a child their place in the tribe

• gives sacred Law to the peoples, passed through generations

• determine things such as who you can marry, how to raise a child, and different roles and responsibilities for individuals within the tribe

totemism

• a spirit being, sacred object, (such as plant or animal) that acts as the emblem of a group of people, such as a family, lineage, or tribe

• spirituality is totemic

• ever tribe has its own totem, often an animal specific to their area, e.g. Darug of Western Sydney have goanna, lizards, and cockatoos

• totems are believed to be descendants of the Dreamtime

• totem unites the tribe and helps keep connection with the Dreaming

• an individual also has their own totem

  • at conception, Aboriginal people believe the totem ‘dreams’ an individual to the womb

    • this creates a transcendent bond between them and their totem

ceremonial life

• ceremonies connect to the dreaming

• recreate eternal moment of the dreaming, allowing participants to spiritually connect w their spirit ancestors

• example: male initiation ceremonies

  • undergo pain to show submission to authority of elders and prove himself worthy to learn more secrets of the Dreaming

  • from this, he is taught totemic dances and chants, and thus able to connect with the Dreaming at a deeper level

obligations

• Aboriginal peoples believed they were formed from the land in the Dreamtime

• the land is their mother – it provides for them for all their needs, therefore they care for it

• they believe if they do not care for it and perform sacred ceremonies the land will lose its ability to renew itself and disasters such as droughts and fires may occur

effects of dispossession

• removal from families and traditional lands

• poor assimilation policies that attempted to deal with ‘the Aboriginal problem’

• huge reduction in the population of Aboriginal Australians

• continuing effects include:

  • lower life expectancy

  • higher rates of infant mortality

  • over-representation in prisons

  • higher unemployment rates

  • higher drug and alcohol abuse

  • higher use of government social services

separation from the land

• an Aboriginal person belongs to a specific ‘country’ and their identity is tied to that particular area

• loss of spiritual identity

  • totems and sacred sites were all in their country

• loss of purpose in life

  • original purpose is to gain deeper connection with the Dreaming (spirit ancestors), but they cannot do that removed from where they are

separation from kinship groups

• means they were unable to learn anything about their identity, spirituality, or their history

the Stolen Generations

• gov policy between 1910 and 1970 to forcibly remove Indigenous children from their families, particularly half-white-half-Aboriginal children, to assimilate them into ‘white australia’

• removal from families results in a loss of identity and spirituality

• continuing trauma and loss of identity

• elders are unable to pass on the Dreaming to the younger generation, resulting in a loss of spirituality

• obligations to the land are not able to be met

The Bringing Them Home Report

the Land Rights movement

• Eddie Mabo

  • et al, representing Meriam peoples of Murray Island in the Torres Strait, took the matter of terra nullius to the Qld supreme court and then the High Court

  • they argued their families had lived there fore ‘time immemorial’

  • on june 3 1992, the high court ruled in favour of Mabo and the Mer people, overturning terra nullius

    • native title to land had existed before 1799 and might still be in existence on land that had not been sold or given away

    • for native title to be claimed, the Aboriginal community would have to prove they had continuously lived there since 1788

    • any land which the government had sold or given away for their executive use was no longer liable to native total

  • on 22 dec 1993, the gov passed the native title act in response to Mabo

    • requirement that native title claims be supported by proof

    • recognition of existing land rights for all who owned ‘freehold land’ (they bought it, not leasing it)

    • that State Tribunals or the Federal Court could hear Native Title claims

    • proof consists of:

      • identity (including genealogies)

      • traditional language

      • connection and responsibilities to country

      • social and cultural system

      • ongoing spiritual connection to the land

• Wik

  • in 1996 the Wik and Wik Way peoples of Cape York argued that their Native Title claim did not extinguish with pastoral leases

  • high court decided that NT and pastoral leases could co-exist

  • if there was conflict, pastoralists would override

  • this decision gave the Wik and Wik Way peoples the right to camp, hunt, and perform rituals on the land

• importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights movement

  • dreaming and land are inextricably linked

  • land is motherrrrring

    • gave birth to them and provides them all their needs

  • identity is tied to the land

  • w/o land, Aboriginal peoples cannot access their sacred sites which are the resting place of their spirit ancestors

  • balance rites: Aboriginal rituals to bring about harmony in nature. Without the land, they cannot perform these ritual responsibilities that they have to the land that keep it producing.

Religious Expression in Australia - 1945 to Present

interpreting census data

• Christianity (43.9%)

  1. down from 52.1% in 2016

  2. Catholic (20%)

  3. Anglican (9.8%)

  4. Uniting Church (2.7%)

• No religion (38.9%)

  1. up from 30.1% in 2016

• Islam (3.2%)

• Hinduism (2.7%)

• Buddhism (2.4%)

• takeaway: Christianity steady decrease, no religion steady increase, other religions small steady increase

• 25.4 million people in the census

• australia is becoming less religious

• data on religious affiliation of Australians has been collected since the first census in 1911

• reflects the historical influence of European migration to Australia, as Christianity was the most common by far was religion

• now, the highest is still Christianity, but there are more adherents of other religions than in 1911, such as Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists

• in 2021, 38.9% of people identify as non-religious. this is inversely proportional to the christianity rates

• reasons for increases ‘non-religious’ answers include campaigns where people said if you don’t actively practice your religion, you should indicate on the census that you have no faith

• older gens are more likely to identify as christian, younger are more likely to identify as having no religion

shifting religious landscape of australia

christianity as the major religious tradition

• Christianity is institutionalised to australia

  • calendar/holidays e.g. easter, christmas

  • religious schools

  • prayers in parliament

• decline in Christianity

  • Christians are down to 43.9% in 2021 from 86% in 1971

• top denominations:

  • catholic

  • anglican

  • uniting

  • orthodox

  • presbyterian and reformed

  • as well as other christian 3.7%

immigration

• australia was originally colonised by the british, and today almost 1 in 4 migrants come from there

• white australia policy ended in 73. during its time, only white immigrants were allowed in, these were predominantly christians

• after ww2 gov let immigrants in e.g. italy and greece but it was still mostly christians

• when wap ended (1973), immigrants from asia, africa, middle east, etc brought more islam as well as buddhism and hinduism

• approx 30% of australians were born overseas

• hinduism is the fastest growing religion in au

• 2021 census revealed number of aussies born in uk has decreased but number from china and india has increased, also people coming from Philippines and new zealand

denominational switching

• back in the day, esp w sectarianism, people tended to stick with the denom they were raised in bc it was part of their identity and how they grew up

• switching from one christian denom to another is a growing phenomenon

• lifelong religious commitment no longer seen as important in a modern and individualistic society

• family breakdown is another factor

• pentecostalists and baptists to a lesser extent are the main beneficiaries of denom switching

• focus on evangelization

• youth are more attracted to vibrant services, promise of direct revelation from god, maybe even speaking in tongues

  • these people are still expressing a belief in god and so are not secular, but are expressing it in ways more personalised and catered to them

rise of new age religions

• not formal, i.e. do not have formal creeds or sacred tests

• they are sometimes referred to in census data as ‘spiritual but not religious’

• generally believe that:

  • all that exists is god (pantheism)

  • karma and reincarnation

  • many paths to the summit of spirituality

  • aura (lol)

• common practices:

  • meditation

  • astrology

  • crystals

  • channeling (making contact w the dead)

  • feng shui

• these have risen in popularity as society questions traditional authorities more, e.g. in vietnam war fallout and protests

• traditional religions are seen as not answering individual needs

• crimes committed by traditional religions can be a factor in the rise of new age religions

• an example of a new age religion is scientology

secularism

• based on the idea that society and government should be free from religious influence

• more prevalent as people are more suspicious of institutionalised religion and feel it is not relevant to a modern society

• individual rights are seen as more important that conforming to traditional faiths

• secularism maintains that science can answer all relevant questions and religion may hold it back

• e.g. in census, ‘no religion’ is the fastest growing group in au, rising from 30.1% to 38.9% in five years (2016-2021)

ecumenical movements

ecumenism: principal or aim of promoting unity amongst Christian churches. opposite of sectarianism, which is remarkable given au history.

• groups work towards social justice issues, e.g. boxing day tsunami 2004 response

• classic example: formation of the uniting church

  • all methodists, 65% of presbyterians, 95% of congregationalists united to form the uniting church in australia (UCA)

  • their calling was to ‘bear witness to the unity of faith and life in Christ, rising above cultural, economic, national, and racial boundaries.’

  • they unite because they cite it as what Jesus wanted

• National Council of Churches Australia (NCCA)

  • formed in 1994 as an ecumenical group made up of anglicans, protestants, catholic, and orthodox to express more visibly the unity desired by christ

  • seeks to strengthen unity by working, praying, and growing together

  • promotes collaboration on social justice issues via international aid organisation ‘Aid for Peace’ which aids communities suffering injustice and poverty

• NSW Ecumenical Council

  • formed in 1982, consists of 16 churches in NSW and ACT

  • seeks to allow different churches to reflect on theology in a united way and provides local initiatives to promote ecumenism

  • also does educational initiatives and advocated ecumenism to future gens

    • organises youth summits such as Peace and Justice Commission which brings together representatives from churches to have forums with young christians

    • dv info programs

interfaith dialogue in multi-faith australia

• formal discussion to develop understanding between different religious traditions

• not an attempt to unify them or to state that they are all the same

• helps different religious affiliations to stand on uncertain issues and to recognise common ground between them

• e.g. Columban Centre for Christian-Muslim relations (CMR), est 1997

  • aims to foster relationships within community and address misconceptions

  • organises dialogues and events in order to facilitate discussion and become a resource of information for adherents

• e.g. NSW Council of Christians and Jews

  • est 1989

  • annual passover demonstration designed to educate non-jews

  • annual commemoration to the holocaust held in St Mary’s Catholic Cathedral

• why it is important:

  • australia is increasingly pluralistic and multi-faith

  • allows for greater respect and appreciation for religious diversity which is essential for harmony and peace

  • important due to historical conflicts between religions, e.g. crusades, terrorist attacks, etc

  • interfaith dialogue helps break down stereotypes and prejudice towards muslims

  • allows for a united voice on key issues

  • promotes unity and strengths in the face of growing secularism

reconciliation

• the process by which ATSI can heal from the past and move towards a better future based on mutual respect and understanding

• it means acknowledging past injustices (e.g. dispossession, stolen generations) and helping the recovery of Aboriginal spiritualties

• the Catholic church celebrates national reconciliation week annually to promote a healing of relationship and health

  • Caritas, the Catholic aid organisation, works with many indigenous australians to deal with the ongoing trauma of protection and assimilation policies

• anglicanism and reconciliation: anglicare and the anglican board of missionaries formed the anglican reconciliation working group which provides accommodation, family support, etc in rural Indigenous communities

• judaism: in 2006, the executive council of australian jewry implemented ‘reconciliation action plan’

• buddhism: recognises the interconnectedness of all beings, therefore the social harmony that results from this insight