Move to Global War - Vocabulary (IB History)

Overview and Structure - This module covers The Move to Global War (Prescribed Subject 3) for IB History and uses two in-depth case studies to examine military expansionism and the move to global war (1931

-41).

  • Case Study 2: German and Italian expansionism, 1933–40.

    • Covers Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, their ideologies, economic pressures, and revision of post-1919 peace settlements.

    • Analyzes Franco–Italian and German moves in Europe and Africa, and the formation of Axis alliances.

  • Chapters are structured around three core aspects for each case study:

    • Causes (political, economic, ideological factors)

    • Actions/Events (the key expansionist moves)

    • International Responses (League of Nations, major powers, and other actors)

  • Key repeat themes across both case studies:

    • Nationalism, militarism, and the rise of fascist and Nazi regimes.

    • The impact of the Great Depression on domestic politics and foreign policy.

    • Problems and weaknesses of the post-1919 peace settlements (Treaty of Versailles, treaties shaping borders).

    • The responses (or lack thereof) by the League of Nations and major democracies, and how these shaped the move to war.

  • The material integrates six Key Concepts: change, continuity, causation, consequence, significance, and perspectives.

  • The book also links to Theory of Knowledge (TOK) by discussing issues of historical interpretation, source reliability, and objectivity in the writing of history.

  • Exam guidance is embedded throughout: four-source Paper 1 questions, mark schemes, and worked examples are included in the later chapters.

  • In addition to narrative, the text provides definitions of terms, maps, timelines, and activities to reinforce understanding and exam preparation. ## Key Concepts (for practice and examination focus) - Change and continuity: How expansionist ideologies and policies represent shifts or continuities with past nationalism and imperial aims.

  • Causation: What caused expansionist foreign policies? Economic distress, political instability, ideologies (fascism, Nazism), and the impact of the Great Depression.

  • Consequence: Immediate and long-term effects of aggression (e.g., military conflicts, economic sanctions, shifts in alliances).

  • Significance: Why particular events mattered in the move to global war; what outcomes were pivotal in altering the balance of power.

  • Perspectives: How historians interpret motives and actions; debates over responsibility and interpretation of sources.

  • Connections to broader knowledge: These case studies relate to the post–1919 peace settlements, collective security, and the League of Nations. ## The Interwar Context: Foundations for War - The First World War and aftermath

  • WWI created nationalist tensions, economic upheaval, and rivalries across Europe and Asia.

  • The post-war settlement involved the Treaty of Versailles (1919–1920) and related peace treaties that redrew borders and imposed reparations.

  • The peace process created significant grievances in Germany, Italy, and Japan, contributing to revisionist and expansionist aims.

  • Key political developments after WWI

  • The collapse of empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman) and emergence of successor states in Europe.

  • The rise of extremist movements in Europe, notably fascism in Italy (Mussolini) and Nazism in Germany (Hitler).

  • Japan’s domestic militarism grew amid political instability and economic pressures.

  • The League of Nations and collective security

  • The League initially had some successes (e.g., Locarno 1925, Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928, disarmament discussions) but suffered from structural weaknesses.

  • Major powers (Britain, France) pursued national interests; the United States did not join the League.

  • The Conference of Ambassadors and direct diplomacy often bypassed the League, undermining collective security.

  • The Great Depression (1929 onward)

  • Global economic crisis intensified nationalist and expansionist policies as countries sought resources and markets.

  • Economic distress contributed to political instability and the appeal of fascist/Nazi regimes.

  • The Depression altered the international balance of power and contributed to the collapse of the League’s authority. ## Economic and Ideological Context (Interwar Europe and Asia) - Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: ideological roots and aims

  • Fascism: nationalist, anti-democratic, anti-liberal; emphasis on the state, imperial expansion, action, and unity; anti-communism; aggressive foreign policy as a core feature.

  • Nazism: linked to fascist ideas but focused on Lebensraum (living space) and expansion in the east; anti-communism; racial theories; imperial ambitions with strategic geographies similar to Italy’s Romanita concept.

  • The Romanita movement in Italy: linking Mussolini to Imperial Rome; emphasis on Rome as a symbol of national pride and expansion; spazio vitale (vital space) extending into the Mediterranean and Africa.

  • Nationalism and militarism

  • Taisho democracy in Japan (1912–26) and the later Showa era mark a shift from limited democracy to ultra-nationalist militarism.

  • In Germany, militarism and nationalism intensified under the Kaiser, then under Weimar, and finally under Hitler as a vehicle for expansion.

  • Economic drivers of expansionism

  • Great Depression worsened unemployment, reduced trade, and created incentives for autarky and imperial expansion to secure resources.

  • In Italy, economic struggles and the desire for autarky spurred policies like the Battle for Grain and other “battles” (e.g., for land, for the lira) to bolster self-sufficiency, which had mixed success.

  • In Germany, the Four-Year Plan (autarky and rearmament) sought to mobilize the economy for war; Mefo bills and other emergency monetization masked real economic imbalances. ## Case Study 2: German and Italian Expansionism, 1933–40 ### 4. Causes of German and Italian Expansion - Fascist and Nazi ideology and expansionist foreign policies

  • Italy: Fascist expansionism rooted in nationalism, imperial nostalgia (Rome), and the desire for a Mediterranean empire; early emphasis on diplomacy and limited aggression; later moves toward direct conquest (Abyssinia, Albania).

  • Germany: Nazi expansionism built on Lebensraum in the east, rejection of Versailles, and a militarized economy; a belief in a superior nation and the need to secure resources and living space.

  • Economic issues and the Great Depression

  • The Depression intensified domestic discontent and appetite for nationalist, expansionist policies as a remedy to economic distress.

  • Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929) helped stabilize Germany temporarily, but economic fragility persisted and contributed to a more aggressive foreign policy once the global economy worsened.

  • Italy faced economic pressures, autarky goals, and the need to secure resources from abroad; economic stress pushed Mussolini toward a more expansive foreign policy.

  • Conditions in Europe (collective security collapse)

  • The League of Nations’ weakness and disagreements among major powers undermined collective security.

  • Appeasement and the erosion of allied commitments (Locarno’s guarantees, Stresa Front’s credibility) facilitated expansionist moves.

  • The rise of Axis power and shifting alignments left Italy and Germany with options other than collaboration with the League. ### 5. Germany’s Actions (1933–39) - 1933–35: Early revision and consolidation

  • Hitler’s appointment as chancellor (January 1933) and gradual consolidation of power.

  • Withdrawal from the World Disarmament Conference and the League (October 1933) while signaling restraint domestically to avoid early confrontation.

  • 1934: Attempted Anschluss with Austria; Mussolini’s opposition blocks the move and mobilizes troops on the Austrian border; internal German rearmament proceeds.

  • 1935: Reintroduction of conscription and Luftwaffe expansion; Stresa Front collapses after Abyssinia crisis; Anglo–German Naval Pact (1935) legitimizes greater German naval power.

  • 1936–38: Rhineland, Austria, and the road to Czechoslovakia

  • 7 March 1936: Re-occupation of the Rhineland (violation of Versailles and Locarno) with limited opposition from Britain/France.

  • 1936–37: Spanish Civil War; German and Italian intervention strengthens Axis relations; Rome–Berlin Axis formed (October 1936); Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (1936) creating the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis (Axis Powers).

  • 1938: Anschluss with Austria (March 1938) achieved with minimal opposition; Munich Agreement (29–30 September 1938) legitimizes German expansion into the Sudetenland; expectations of no further action from Britain/France undermine confidence in collective security.

  • 1938–39: Czech crisis and further expansion

  • 1939: In March, invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia; Germany’s expansion continues; Poland becomes a target; the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) is signed (23 August 1939) with a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe.

  • The invasion of Poland (September 1939) triggers the outbreak of World War II in Europe. ### 6. Italy’s Actions (1935–39) - 1935–36: Abyssinian crisis and its consequences

  • Invasion of Abyssinia (October 1935) triggers sanctions from the League, but oil and other vital supplies are not fully embargoed; sanctions prove ineffective.

  • The Hoare–Laval plan (secret) proposed partial territorial concessions to Italy; public outcry forces its abandonment, damaging the League’s credibility.

  • Italy’s aggressive actions contribute to the collapse of the Stresa Front and push Mussolini closer to Hitler.

  • 1936–39: Cooperation with Germany and expansion in the Mediterranean

  • Mussolini’s Spain intervention (Spanish Civil War) aligns Italy more closely with Germany; Rome–Berlin Axis forms in October 1936; Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact (1937).

  • 1938–39: Abyssinian campaign concluded; Italy withdraws from the League (December 1937); In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler sign the Pact of Steel (May 1939), committing Italy to joint military action, though Mussolini asks for a three-year peace to recover from recent campaigns.

  • Italy invades Albania in April 1939, illustrating its willingness to pursue expansion even after aligning with Germany. ### 7. International Responses to German and Italian Expansionism (1933–40) - The League of Nations’ weaknesses and the rise of appeasement

  • Early successes (Locarno, Kellogg–Briand) but overall ineffectiveness as a security system by the late 1930s.

  • Britain’s policy of appeasement under Chamberlain (late 1930s) attempted to avoid another war by accommodating German and Italian demands; France faced greater political constraints and ally uncertainty.

  • The Conference of Ambassadors often acted independently of the League; some actions (like the Stresa Front) show cooperative diplomacy outside the League framework.

  • Major power diplomacy and alignments

  • Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy moved closer in the mid-to-late 1930s; Germany’s revisionist aims met limited opposition from Britain initially, then from France, before the full collapse of collective security.

  • The Soviet Union’s role becomes increasingly pivotal: initially cautious about antagonism with Germany, then seeking alliances to counter German expansion; later, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) with Germany shifts the strategic balance in Eastern Europe.

  • The Spanish Civil War and non-intervention

  • Non-intervention failed to prevent German and Italian involvement; Germany gained testing ground for Blitzkrieg and air power; Italy gained strategic experience and resources.

  • The conflict hardened Axis ties and demonstrated the international community’s inability to enforce collective security.

  • The Munich Crisis and Evolving Western Attitudes

  • The Munich Agreement (1938) is widely viewed as a symbol of appeasement failures; it emboldened Germany and signified a decision by Britain and France to avoid confrontation, at least in the short term.

  • The subsequent failures to defend Czechoslovakia and to deter further aggression pushed Europe toward war, culminating in the invasion of Poland in 1939. ## Key Terms and Concepts (Terminology and Definitions) - Appeasement: The policy associated with Neville Chamberlain (British Prime Minister) after 1937 of making concessions to aggressive powers (notably Germany) to avoid war; linked to revisionism and the attempt to keep peace while accepting some territorial revisions.

  • Collective security: An approach where states act together to prevent aggression; the League of Nations sought to uphold this through negotiation, sanctions, and, as a last resort, collective military action; weaknesses included the lack of enforcement mechanisms and non-membership of key powers.

  • Diktat: A dictatorial peace treaty term used by German nationalists to describe the Treaty of Versailles as an imposed peace.

  • Fascism: The Italian political ideology developed under Mussolini; emphasis on the state, nationalism, militarism, anti-liberalism, anti-socialism; the doctrine encompassed expansionist aims and a militant foreign policy.

  • Social Darwinism and racial theories: Ideological components used by fascist and Nazi regimes to justify conquest and hegemony; “survival of the fittest” applied to nations and races.

  • Lebensraum: Hitler’s concept of “living space” in the east to secure resources and space for the German people; parallel to Italy’s spazio vitale.

  • Spazio vitale: Mussolini’s concept of “living space” for Italy in the Mediterranean and Africa; the expansionist aim for Italian empire.

  • Romanita: An Italian cultural movement linking modern fascism to ancient Rome, reinforcing nationalist pride and imperial expansion.

  • Mefo bills: Secret government bonds used by the Nazi regime to conceal rearmament spending; part of the financing mechanism within the Four-Year Plan.

  • Four-Year Plan: Initiated under Goering to prepare Germany’s economy for war within four years, prioritizing rearmament and autarky; a central instrument of Nazi economic policy.

  • Lebensraum and western vs. eastern expansion: German expansion focused on eastern Europe and the USSR; Italian expansion focused on the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Adriatic.

  • Locarno and Kellogg–Briand: Key international agreements in the 1920s designed to stabilize borders and renounce war; important context for the shift toward aggression in the 1930s.

  • Stresa Front: A 1935 alliance among Britain, France, and Italy to oppose unilateral German rearmament and aggression; its collapse signaled the weakening of collective security. ## The Role of the Great Depression in Shaping Policy - Economic crisis and national insecurity contributed to the appeal of aggressive, expansionist policies in both Italy and Germany.

  • In Germany, economic distress amplified support for the Nazis, who promised employment, national revival, and the reconstitution of German power.

  • In Italy, economic strain and autarky goals reinforced Mussolini’s push for expansion and control of resources beyond Italy’s borders; the IRI (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) signified the regime’s preference for state involvement in the economy.

  • The Depression weakened the League and made collective security seem less viable, pushing Axis powers toward regional domination rather than international cooperation. ## Economic, Demographic, and Strategic Data (Selected Highlights) - Versailles terms on Germany (illustrative measures):

  • Land loss: 10 \% of territory

  • Population loss: 12.5 \%

  • Coal resources lost: 16 \% of coalfields

  • Iron and steel industries lost: 50 \%

  • Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929) adjustments to reparations:

  • Dawes Plan restructured reparations and currency stabilization; introduced loans to Germany.

  • Young Plan reduced total reparations by about 75 \% and extended the repayment period to 59 \text{ years}.

  • German economic indicators under the Nazi regime:

  • Unemployment declined from 6 \text{ million} in 1933 to about 1.7 \text{ million} by 1935; by 1938, unemployment was around 0.3 \text{ million} (approx.).

  • The Four-Year Plan directed nearly 50 \% of industrial investment toward rearmament and essential war preparations during 1936–1940.

  • Despite growth, Germany remained dependent on imports for many raw materials; autarky goals were not fully achieved (oil and rubber remained short by 1939).

  • Italian economic indicators under fascist rule:

  • Unemployment rose to over 2 \text{ million} during the early Depression period; significant losses in agriculture (about 30 \% of labor in agriculture).

  • The Battle for Grain nearly doubled cereal production by 1939, achieving near self-sufficiency in wheat, but other foodstuffs and olive oil imports rose; overall the Battaglia della Lira and other campaigns had mixed effects on the economy.

  • The IRI consolidated state control over major industries (iron/steel, shipping, electricals, etc.) by 1939; while industrial output rose, Italy did not achieve broad modernization.

  • General context numbers:

  • The Great Depression caused tariff increases and protectionism; by 1931, world tariffs had more than doubled compared to pre-1929 levels.

  • The Soviet Union (USSR) experienced relative industrial growth during the Depression, contrasting with Western declines; some Western firms invested in the USSR during the 1930s.

  • The US remained officially isolationist for much of the 1930s but began shifting policy toward eventual engagement as the 1930s progressed. ## The Final Steps to Global War (1939–41) and Aftermath - The shift from appeasement to armed opposition culminated in war (1939) with Germany’s invasion of Poland and the USSR’s subsequent actions.

  • The Axis powers aligned through the Rome–Berlin Axis (1936) and the later Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, culminating in the wider conflict of World War II.

  • The Spanish Civil War (1936–39) is often viewed as a prelude to World War II, showcasing how internal European factions and external powers supported regimes with expansionist aims and how non-intervention policies failed to check the rising powers. ## Exam Skills and Practice (What to Expect on Paper 1) - Paper 1 is source-based; you will be given four sources (usually three written and one visual) and asked to craft an answer that integrates your own knowledge with the sources.

  • Key exam strategies:

    • Read captions and attributions carefully; they provide vital context for evaluating sources.

    • Treat sources as a set; compare and contrast to identify agreement and disagreement.

    • Prepare a mini-essay style response when asked to assess the significance of a factor using both sources and knowledge.

  • Common question types include: comprehension, value and limitations, cross-referencing, and judgement/interpretation questions.

  • There is a separate Exam Practice chapter with worked examples and simplified mark schemes to familiarize you with the structure and expectations.

  • Historical debates:

    • Debates about appeasement: was Chamberlain’s approach realistic given the international context or a strategic failure?

    • Debates about the Hossbach Memorandum and whether 1937 marked a turning point in Hitler’s policy toward expansion.

    • Debates about the League of Nations’ effectiveness and the degree to which collective security could have prevented war. ## Connections to Previous Lectures and Foundational Principles - The Move to Global War extends the study of post–WWI international order and the fragility of the peace settlements.

  • Foundational principles include: balance of power, nationalism, imperial competition, economic interdependence, and the role of international law in maintaining peace.

  • The two case studies illustrate how different regional dynamics (East Asia vs. Europe) produced similar outcomes: expansionist policies driven by ideology and economic pressures, exploited by weak enforcement mechanisms and ineffective collective security structures. ## Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications - Responsibility for aggression and the moral debate about interpretation of sources (TOK links: What counts as objective historical truth? How do historians’ biases shape interpretation?)

  • The tension between national sovereignty and international obligations (self-determination vs. forced expansions).

  • The human cost of expansionist policies: civilian casualties, mass displacement, and the long-term political and economic damage to regions involved.

  • The limitations and failures of international bodies (League of Nations) when major powers opt for unilateral action or appeasement. ## Notes on Key People and Concepts (quick reference) - Mussolini (Italy): fascist leader who pursued expansion in Abyssinia, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean; linked to Romanita and spazio vitale; key events include Corfu (1923), Pact of Rome (1924), Italian intervention in Spain, the Abyssinian invasion (1935), the Rome–Berlin Axis (1936), and the Pact of Steel (1939).

  • Hitler (Germany): Nazi leader who dismantled the postwar order, pursued Lebensraum, withdrew from disarmament talks, rearmed, reoccupied the Rhineland, annexed Austria, pressured Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact before invading Poland.

  • Japanese militarists: Kwantung Army and ultranationalist factions influenced foreign policy; Manchuria invasion and Sino-Japanese War underpinned by resource needs and imperial prestige. ## Summary for Revision (compact bullets) - Interwar period featured two major expansionist trajectories: Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931–41) and European expansion by Germany and Italy (1933–40).

  • Core drivers included nationalism, militarism, economic distress from the Great Depression, and the failure of collective security.

  • The League of Nations proved ineffective as a enforcement mechanism; major powers pursued their own interests, often outside the League framework.

  • Ideologies (fascism and Nazism) provided the rationale for expansion and competition over territory and resources.

  • The international community’s responses ranged from condemnation and sanctions to appeasement and strategic accommodation, ultimately failing to prevent war.

  • The historical debate continues: to what extent did policy choices in Britain and France—toward appeasement or alliance-building—determine the outbreak of war? What is the balance between structural (economic, political) versus leadership (individual decisions) factors? ## Appendix: Useful Dates and Events (selected) - 1919–1920: Peace treaties (Paris Peace Conference) and Treaty of Versailles; redrawing borders; demilitarization requirements.

  • 1925: Locarno Pact; Germany’s integration into the European security framework began; early steps toward collective security.

  • 1928: Kellogg–Briand Pact renouncing war; League’s commitment to disarmament continues but with limited enforcement mechanisms.

  • 1931–1932: Manchuria crisis and the League’s discrediting; rise of rearmament and revisionist diplomacy in Europe.

  • 1933: Hitler becomes chancellor; withdrawal from League and disarmament conferences; beginnings of expansionist policy.

  • 1935: Reintroduction of conscription; Abyssinia invasion; Stresa Front collapses; Anglo–German Naval Treaty.

  • 1936: Remilitarization of the Rhineland; Spanish Civil War begins; Rome–Berlin Axis formed.

  • 1938: Anschluss with Austria; Munich Agreement; Sudetenland crisis; end of appeasement confidence in the status quo.

  • 1939: Invasion of rest of Czechoslovakia; Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact; invasion