Move to Global War - Vocabulary (IB History)
Overview and Structure - This module covers The Move to Global War (Prescribed Subject 3) for IB History and uses two in-depth case studies to examine military expansionism and the move to global war (1931
-41).
Case Study 2: German and Italian expansionism, 1933–40.
Covers Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, their ideologies, economic pressures, and revision of post-1919 peace settlements.
Analyzes Franco–Italian and German moves in Europe and Africa, and the formation of Axis alliances.
Chapters are structured around three core aspects for each case study:
Causes (political, economic, ideological factors)
Actions/Events (the key expansionist moves)
International Responses (League of Nations, major powers, and other actors)
Key repeat themes across both case studies:
Nationalism, militarism, and the rise of fascist and Nazi regimes.
The impact of the Great Depression on domestic politics and foreign policy.
Problems and weaknesses of the post-1919 peace settlements (Treaty of Versailles, treaties shaping borders).
The responses (or lack thereof) by the League of Nations and major democracies, and how these shaped the move to war.
The material integrates six Key Concepts: change, continuity, causation, consequence, significance, and perspectives.
The book also links to Theory of Knowledge (TOK) by discussing issues of historical interpretation, source reliability, and objectivity in the writing of history.
Exam guidance is embedded throughout: four-source Paper 1 questions, mark schemes, and worked examples are included in the later chapters.
In addition to narrative, the text provides definitions of terms, maps, timelines, and activities to reinforce understanding and exam preparation. ## Key Concepts (for practice and examination focus) - Change and continuity: How expansionist ideologies and policies represent shifts or continuities with past nationalism and imperial aims.
Causation: What caused expansionist foreign policies? Economic distress, political instability, ideologies (fascism, Nazism), and the impact of the Great Depression.
Consequence: Immediate and long-term effects of aggression (e.g., military conflicts, economic sanctions, shifts in alliances).
Significance: Why particular events mattered in the move to global war; what outcomes were pivotal in altering the balance of power.
Perspectives: How historians interpret motives and actions; debates over responsibility and interpretation of sources.
Connections to broader knowledge: These case studies relate to the post–1919 peace settlements, collective security, and the League of Nations. ## The Interwar Context: Foundations for War - The First World War and aftermath
WWI created nationalist tensions, economic upheaval, and rivalries across Europe and Asia.
The post-war settlement involved the Treaty of Versailles (1919–1920) and related peace treaties that redrew borders and imposed reparations.
The peace process created significant grievances in Germany, Italy, and Japan, contributing to revisionist and expansionist aims.
Key political developments after WWI
The collapse of empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman) and emergence of successor states in Europe.
The rise of extremist movements in Europe, notably fascism in Italy (Mussolini) and Nazism in Germany (Hitler).
Japan’s domestic militarism grew amid political instability and economic pressures.
The League of Nations and collective security
The League initially had some successes (e.g., Locarno 1925, Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928, disarmament discussions) but suffered from structural weaknesses.
Major powers (Britain, France) pursued national interests; the United States did not join the League.
The Conference of Ambassadors and direct diplomacy often bypassed the League, undermining collective security.
The Great Depression (1929 onward)
Global economic crisis intensified nationalist and expansionist policies as countries sought resources and markets.
Economic distress contributed to political instability and the appeal of fascist/Nazi regimes.
The Depression altered the international balance of power and contributed to the collapse of the League’s authority. ## Economic and Ideological Context (Interwar Europe and Asia) - Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: ideological roots and aims
Fascism: nationalist, anti-democratic, anti-liberal; emphasis on the state, imperial expansion, action, and unity; anti-communism; aggressive foreign policy as a core feature.
Nazism: linked to fascist ideas but focused on Lebensraum (living space) and expansion in the east; anti-communism; racial theories; imperial ambitions with strategic geographies similar to Italy’s Romanita concept.
The Romanita movement in Italy: linking Mussolini to Imperial Rome; emphasis on Rome as a symbol of national pride and expansion; spazio vitale (vital space) extending into the Mediterranean and Africa.
Nationalism and militarism
Taisho democracy in Japan (1912–26) and the later Showa era mark a shift from limited democracy to ultra-nationalist militarism.
In Germany, militarism and nationalism intensified under the Kaiser, then under Weimar, and finally under Hitler as a vehicle for expansion.
Economic drivers of expansionism
Great Depression worsened unemployment, reduced trade, and created incentives for autarky and imperial expansion to secure resources.
In Italy, economic struggles and the desire for autarky spurred policies like the Battle for Grain and other “battles” (e.g., for land, for the lira) to bolster self-sufficiency, which had mixed success.
In Germany, the Four-Year Plan (autarky and rearmament) sought to mobilize the economy for war; Mefo bills and other emergency monetization masked real economic imbalances. ## Case Study 2: German and Italian Expansionism, 1933–40 ### 4. Causes of German and Italian Expansion - Fascist and Nazi ideology and expansionist foreign policies
Italy: Fascist expansionism rooted in nationalism, imperial nostalgia (Rome), and the desire for a Mediterranean empire; early emphasis on diplomacy and limited aggression; later moves toward direct conquest (Abyssinia, Albania).
Germany: Nazi expansionism built on Lebensraum in the east, rejection of Versailles, and a militarized economy; a belief in a superior nation and the need to secure resources and living space.
Economic issues and the Great Depression
The Depression intensified domestic discontent and appetite for nationalist, expansionist policies as a remedy to economic distress.
Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929) helped stabilize Germany temporarily, but economic fragility persisted and contributed to a more aggressive foreign policy once the global economy worsened.
Italy faced economic pressures, autarky goals, and the need to secure resources from abroad; economic stress pushed Mussolini toward a more expansive foreign policy.
Conditions in Europe (collective security collapse)
The League of Nations’ weakness and disagreements among major powers undermined collective security.
Appeasement and the erosion of allied commitments (Locarno’s guarantees, Stresa Front’s credibility) facilitated expansionist moves.
The rise of Axis power and shifting alignments left Italy and Germany with options other than collaboration with the League. ### 5. Germany’s Actions (1933–39) - 1933–35: Early revision and consolidation
Hitler’s appointment as chancellor (January 1933) and gradual consolidation of power.
Withdrawal from the World Disarmament Conference and the League (October 1933) while signaling restraint domestically to avoid early confrontation.
1934: Attempted Anschluss with Austria; Mussolini’s opposition blocks the move and mobilizes troops on the Austrian border; internal German rearmament proceeds.
1935: Reintroduction of conscription and Luftwaffe expansion; Stresa Front collapses after Abyssinia crisis; Anglo–German Naval Pact (1935) legitimizes greater German naval power.
1936–38: Rhineland, Austria, and the road to Czechoslovakia
7 March 1936: Re-occupation of the Rhineland (violation of Versailles and Locarno) with limited opposition from Britain/France.
1936–37: Spanish Civil War; German and Italian intervention strengthens Axis relations; Rome–Berlin Axis formed (October 1936); Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (1936) creating the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis (Axis Powers).
1938: Anschluss with Austria (March 1938) achieved with minimal opposition; Munich Agreement (29–30 September 1938) legitimizes German expansion into the Sudetenland; expectations of no further action from Britain/France undermine confidence in collective security.
1938–39: Czech crisis and further expansion
1939: In March, invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia; Germany’s expansion continues; Poland becomes a target; the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) is signed (23 August 1939) with a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe.
The invasion of Poland (September 1939) triggers the outbreak of World War II in Europe. ### 6. Italy’s Actions (1935–39) - 1935–36: Abyssinian crisis and its consequences
Invasion of Abyssinia (October 1935) triggers sanctions from the League, but oil and other vital supplies are not fully embargoed; sanctions prove ineffective.
The Hoare–Laval plan (secret) proposed partial territorial concessions to Italy; public outcry forces its abandonment, damaging the League’s credibility.
Italy’s aggressive actions contribute to the collapse of the Stresa Front and push Mussolini closer to Hitler.
1936–39: Cooperation with Germany and expansion in the Mediterranean
Mussolini’s Spain intervention (Spanish Civil War) aligns Italy more closely with Germany; Rome–Berlin Axis forms in October 1936; Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact (1937).
1938–39: Abyssinian campaign concluded; Italy withdraws from the League (December 1937); In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler sign the Pact of Steel (May 1939), committing Italy to joint military action, though Mussolini asks for a three-year peace to recover from recent campaigns.
Italy invades Albania in April 1939, illustrating its willingness to pursue expansion even after aligning with Germany. ### 7. International Responses to German and Italian Expansionism (1933–40) - The League of Nations’ weaknesses and the rise of appeasement
Early successes (Locarno, Kellogg–Briand) but overall ineffectiveness as a security system by the late 1930s.
Britain’s policy of appeasement under Chamberlain (late 1930s) attempted to avoid another war by accommodating German and Italian demands; France faced greater political constraints and ally uncertainty.
The Conference of Ambassadors often acted independently of the League; some actions (like the Stresa Front) show cooperative diplomacy outside the League framework.
Major power diplomacy and alignments
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy moved closer in the mid-to-late 1930s; Germany’s revisionist aims met limited opposition from Britain initially, then from France, before the full collapse of collective security.
The Soviet Union’s role becomes increasingly pivotal: initially cautious about antagonism with Germany, then seeking alliances to counter German expansion; later, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) with Germany shifts the strategic balance in Eastern Europe.
The Spanish Civil War and non-intervention
Non-intervention failed to prevent German and Italian involvement; Germany gained testing ground for Blitzkrieg and air power; Italy gained strategic experience and resources.
The conflict hardened Axis ties and demonstrated the international community’s inability to enforce collective security.
The Munich Crisis and Evolving Western Attitudes
The Munich Agreement (1938) is widely viewed as a symbol of appeasement failures; it emboldened Germany and signified a decision by Britain and France to avoid confrontation, at least in the short term.
The subsequent failures to defend Czechoslovakia and to deter further aggression pushed Europe toward war, culminating in the invasion of Poland in 1939. ## Key Terms and Concepts (Terminology and Definitions) - Appeasement: The policy associated with Neville Chamberlain (British Prime Minister) after 1937 of making concessions to aggressive powers (notably Germany) to avoid war; linked to revisionism and the attempt to keep peace while accepting some territorial revisions.
Collective security: An approach where states act together to prevent aggression; the League of Nations sought to uphold this through negotiation, sanctions, and, as a last resort, collective military action; weaknesses included the lack of enforcement mechanisms and non-membership of key powers.
Diktat: A dictatorial peace treaty term used by German nationalists to describe the Treaty of Versailles as an imposed peace.
Fascism: The Italian political ideology developed under Mussolini; emphasis on the state, nationalism, militarism, anti-liberalism, anti-socialism; the doctrine encompassed expansionist aims and a militant foreign policy.
Social Darwinism and racial theories: Ideological components used by fascist and Nazi regimes to justify conquest and hegemony; “survival of the fittest” applied to nations and races.
Lebensraum: Hitler’s concept of “living space” in the east to secure resources and space for the German people; parallel to Italy’s spazio vitale.
Spazio vitale: Mussolini’s concept of “living space” for Italy in the Mediterranean and Africa; the expansionist aim for Italian empire.
Romanita: An Italian cultural movement linking modern fascism to ancient Rome, reinforcing nationalist pride and imperial expansion.
Mefo bills: Secret government bonds used by the Nazi regime to conceal rearmament spending; part of the financing mechanism within the Four-Year Plan.
Four-Year Plan: Initiated under Goering to prepare Germany’s economy for war within four years, prioritizing rearmament and autarky; a central instrument of Nazi economic policy.
Lebensraum and western vs. eastern expansion: German expansion focused on eastern Europe and the USSR; Italian expansion focused on the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Adriatic.
Locarno and Kellogg–Briand: Key international agreements in the 1920s designed to stabilize borders and renounce war; important context for the shift toward aggression in the 1930s.
Stresa Front: A 1935 alliance among Britain, France, and Italy to oppose unilateral German rearmament and aggression; its collapse signaled the weakening of collective security. ## The Role of the Great Depression in Shaping Policy - Economic crisis and national insecurity contributed to the appeal of aggressive, expansionist policies in both Italy and Germany.
In Germany, economic distress amplified support for the Nazis, who promised employment, national revival, and the reconstitution of German power.
In Italy, economic strain and autarky goals reinforced Mussolini’s push for expansion and control of resources beyond Italy’s borders; the IRI (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) signified the regime’s preference for state involvement in the economy.
The Depression weakened the League and made collective security seem less viable, pushing Axis powers toward regional domination rather than international cooperation. ## Economic, Demographic, and Strategic Data (Selected Highlights) - Versailles terms on Germany (illustrative measures):
Land loss: 10 \% of territory
Population loss: 12.5 \%
Coal resources lost: 16 \% of coalfields
Iron and steel industries lost: 50 \%
Dawes Plan (1924) and Young Plan (1929) adjustments to reparations:
Dawes Plan restructured reparations and currency stabilization; introduced loans to Germany.
Young Plan reduced total reparations by about 75 \% and extended the repayment period to 59 \text{ years}.
German economic indicators under the Nazi regime:
Unemployment declined from 6 \text{ million} in 1933 to about 1.7 \text{ million} by 1935; by 1938, unemployment was around 0.3 \text{ million} (approx.).
The Four-Year Plan directed nearly 50 \% of industrial investment toward rearmament and essential war preparations during 1936–1940.
Despite growth, Germany remained dependent on imports for many raw materials; autarky goals were not fully achieved (oil and rubber remained short by 1939).
Italian economic indicators under fascist rule:
Unemployment rose to over 2 \text{ million} during the early Depression period; significant losses in agriculture (about 30 \% of labor in agriculture).
The Battle for Grain nearly doubled cereal production by 1939, achieving near self-sufficiency in wheat, but other foodstuffs and olive oil imports rose; overall the Battaglia della Lira and other campaigns had mixed effects on the economy.
The IRI consolidated state control over major industries (iron/steel, shipping, electricals, etc.) by 1939; while industrial output rose, Italy did not achieve broad modernization.
General context numbers:
The Great Depression caused tariff increases and protectionism; by 1931, world tariffs had more than doubled compared to pre-1929 levels.
The Soviet Union (USSR) experienced relative industrial growth during the Depression, contrasting with Western declines; some Western firms invested in the USSR during the 1930s.
The US remained officially isolationist for much of the 1930s but began shifting policy toward eventual engagement as the 1930s progressed. ## The Final Steps to Global War (1939–41) and Aftermath - The shift from appeasement to armed opposition culminated in war (1939) with Germany’s invasion of Poland and the USSR’s subsequent actions.
The Axis powers aligned through the Rome–Berlin Axis (1936) and the later Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, culminating in the wider conflict of World War II.
The Spanish Civil War (1936–39) is often viewed as a prelude to World War II, showcasing how internal European factions and external powers supported regimes with expansionist aims and how non-intervention policies failed to check the rising powers. ## Exam Skills and Practice (What to Expect on Paper 1) - Paper 1 is source-based; you will be given four sources (usually three written and one visual) and asked to craft an answer that integrates your own knowledge with the sources.
Key exam strategies:
Read captions and attributions carefully; they provide vital context for evaluating sources.
Treat sources as a set; compare and contrast to identify agreement and disagreement.
Prepare a mini-essay style response when asked to assess the significance of a factor using both sources and knowledge.
Common question types include: comprehension, value and limitations, cross-referencing, and judgement/interpretation questions.
There is a separate Exam Practice chapter with worked examples and simplified mark schemes to familiarize you with the structure and expectations.
Historical debates:
Debates about appeasement: was Chamberlain’s approach realistic given the international context or a strategic failure?
Debates about the Hossbach Memorandum and whether 1937 marked a turning point in Hitler’s policy toward expansion.
Debates about the League of Nations’ effectiveness and the degree to which collective security could have prevented war. ## Connections to Previous Lectures and Foundational Principles - The Move to Global War extends the study of post–WWI international order and the fragility of the peace settlements.
Foundational principles include: balance of power, nationalism, imperial competition, economic interdependence, and the role of international law in maintaining peace.
The two case studies illustrate how different regional dynamics (East Asia vs. Europe) produced similar outcomes: expansionist policies driven by ideology and economic pressures, exploited by weak enforcement mechanisms and ineffective collective security structures. ## Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications - Responsibility for aggression and the moral debate about interpretation of sources (TOK links: What counts as objective historical truth? How do historians’ biases shape interpretation?)
The tension between national sovereignty and international obligations (self-determination vs. forced expansions).
The human cost of expansionist policies: civilian casualties, mass displacement, and the long-term political and economic damage to regions involved.
The limitations and failures of international bodies (League of Nations) when major powers opt for unilateral action or appeasement. ## Notes on Key People and Concepts (quick reference) - Mussolini (Italy): fascist leader who pursued expansion in Abyssinia, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean; linked to Romanita and spazio vitale; key events include Corfu (1923), Pact of Rome (1924), Italian intervention in Spain, the Abyssinian invasion (1935), the Rome–Berlin Axis (1936), and the Pact of Steel (1939).
Hitler (Germany): Nazi leader who dismantled the postwar order, pursued Lebensraum, withdrew from disarmament talks, rearmed, reoccupied the Rhineland, annexed Austria, pressured Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact before invading Poland.
Japanese militarists: Kwantung Army and ultranationalist factions influenced foreign policy; Manchuria invasion and Sino-Japanese War underpinned by resource needs and imperial prestige. ## Summary for Revision (compact bullets) - Interwar period featured two major expansionist trajectories: Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931–41) and European expansion by Germany and Italy (1933–40).
Core drivers included nationalism, militarism, economic distress from the Great Depression, and the failure of collective security.
The League of Nations proved ineffective as a enforcement mechanism; major powers pursued their own interests, often outside the League framework.
Ideologies (fascism and Nazism) provided the rationale for expansion and competition over territory and resources.
The international community’s responses ranged from condemnation and sanctions to appeasement and strategic accommodation, ultimately failing to prevent war.
The historical debate continues: to what extent did policy choices in Britain and France—toward appeasement or alliance-building—determine the outbreak of war? What is the balance between structural (economic, political) versus leadership (individual decisions) factors? ## Appendix: Useful Dates and Events (selected) - 1919–1920: Peace treaties (Paris Peace Conference) and Treaty of Versailles; redrawing borders; demilitarization requirements.
1925: Locarno Pact; Germany’s integration into the European security framework began; early steps toward collective security.
1928: Kellogg–Briand Pact renouncing war; League’s commitment to disarmament continues but with limited enforcement mechanisms.
1931–1932: Manchuria crisis and the League’s discrediting; rise of rearmament and revisionist diplomacy in Europe.
1933: Hitler becomes chancellor; withdrawal from League and disarmament conferences; beginnings of expansionist policy.
1935: Reintroduction of conscription; Abyssinia invasion; Stresa Front collapses; Anglo–German Naval Treaty.
1936: Remilitarization of the Rhineland; Spanish Civil War begins; Rome–Berlin Axis formed.
1938: Anschluss with Austria; Munich Agreement; Sudetenland crisis; end of appeasement confidence in the status quo.
1939: Invasion of rest of Czechoslovakia; Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact; invasion