Nation-State: Independent geographic area where people share a single government and strong cultural identity.

• Originated 1500-1700 w/ England, China, and Japan.

• 2 facts: Wars and nationalism.

  • Thirty Years War, the American Revolution, and the Haitian Revolution.

    • Thirty Years’ War led to the development of the Westphalian System. This defined a nation-state.

      • A nation-state no matter its size, has international rights + ability to create its laws.

      • Netherlands and Switzerland became nation-states.

  • Nationalism: A strong belief in the superiority of one’s nation.

    • Leading cause of World War 1.

    • Austria, Hungry, and Turkey.

• 3 characteristics: Politics, culture, and economics.

  • Politics: 2 political factors that characterize areas as a nation-state:

    • A single central government establishes a national identity for its people. For example, the Iranian Revolution established Iran as a nation-state and developed its identity as an Islamic state.

    • How other nation-states view the state.

  • Culture: People may not always, but generally have a similar culture, such as similar religious practices. Sometimes the culture is forced upon those who live in the nation-state.

  • Economics: A nation-state must have financial independence. Must also participate in international trade. Cannot rely on external powers.

• A state is an independent government that rules over an area with clear boundaries.

• A nation is a group of people who see themselves as belonging together because of a shared history, culture, or language.

• Germany: Otto Von Bismarck unified many German states into one. Began in 1862 when he was made the prime minister of Prussia.

  • First took over Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark, and made allies of German northern states until he formed the North German Confederation. Unable to convince southern states to join.

  • Started the Franco-Prussian War, which united Germany under one nation-state. After Southern states joined the confederation. After they joined, Germany became a nation state and Bismarck became the chancellor.

• Japan: The Meiji Restoration causes the birth of a new nation-state.

  • The political revolution of 1868 ended the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan. Power was given to the emperor, Mutsuhito. He industrialized Japan and made it a nation-state.

  • Many Japanese people were afraid of Western imperialism.

  • Had developed a centralized government, a constitution, and an elected parliament. Had grown army and navy, and well-educated people.

  • Japan wanted to take territory similar to Western empires. Leaders started a war and took over Korea. Unified the Japanese people. Made life hard and cruel for many Koreans.

    • Not allowed to govern themselves, were banned from speaking Korean, and couldn’t learn about their history.

Discrepancy: When sources about a similar topic disagree.

Primary Source: Created by someone who lived during the period. Has a limited perspective, however, it offers a first-hand account of the events.

There are 3 most common reasons to consider multiple accounts about a similar topic:

• Authors use different primary sources to write secondary sources.

• Authors interpret the primary sources differently.

• Authors have different opinions about the topic under study.

  European countries found it difficult to colonize Asia prior due to:

  • Countries large populations

  • Similar technologies, such as gunpowder

  • Development of unified nation-states, such as China and Japan.

  • Asia had diseases similar to those in Europe, such as smallpox.

England used their economic strength to colonize India.

• Set up trading networks and relationships which allowed India to slowly take land from Indian rulers.

• Used India’s internal gov strife to recruit Indians to the British military. Advantage because India had a superior navy. Colonized in 1858.

• England acquired large economic gain. Especially in the forced production of cash crops, ex: cotton and tea.

2 of the most highly sought-after resources in East Asia were rice and rubber. French claimed they colonized East Asia to “civilize” the land based on the White man’s burden theory. The true motive was profit.

French used a divide-and-rule approach: A policy that deliberately weakens a unified group by separating it into sections with different privileges and rules.

• French sought to divide Vietnam based on cultural and religious characteristics. Ex: Buddhists and Catholics.

European colonization of Africa was used for resources, raw materials, and cheap labor. Solely based on economic gain.

First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

• Between China and Japan, because they both wanted to take over Korea.

• Demonstrated that Japan was now an imperialist power. Demonstrated that China’s power was weakening.

• In 1894, a pro-Japanese Korean leader was assassinated by Chinese agents in Shanghai. Reflection of rising tensions.

  • The same year, a pro-Japanese rebellion started in Korea. Squashed by Chinese

• Forced to give territory to Japan in the form of Taiwan, and China gave Japan money and allowed it to trade in the Chinese territory, which Japan hadn’t been able to do before the war.

• Western imperialist powers applied more pressure on China, so they would have more power in China. They treated Japan with more care.

• In China, the defeat led to more rebellions.

Practice Questions:

1) How were nation-states developed

2) What constitutes a nation-state?

3) What are examples of nation-states in the world today?

Britsh Imperialism:

India became known as its “crown jewel”. Referring to the precious jewels kings and queens put in their crowns to demonstrate their power.

• In the 16th Century, the Mughal Empire established itself in India. This was the first time a single government unified most of the subcontinent.

  • Allowed the Empire to grow economically, and massively. In 1750, it was the richest in the world. Made up a quarter of the globe’s total economy.

  • Indian cotton, which artisans weaved into expensive clothes. Weavers were considered the best in the world.

  • In industrial production centers, silk, yarn, butter, and oils were made. Large shipbuilding industry.

  • Europe was attracted to the wealth, at first just trading posts were set up.

  • British formed the British East India Company to trade even more.

    • He created his private military, bought large sections of land, and controlled many local princes this way. Abused the Indian population.

    • Forced to grow cotton and other cash crops instead of food. Started manufacturing textiles in England instead of India to make money. Destroyed industrial centers in India.

    • British extracted India’s wealth on a massive scale. The company sent trillions of dollars of wealth.

    • 1857: Sepoys rebelled against the British. Britain took control of the region, creating the British Raj and making India part of the British Empire.

    • British taxation of Indian people added to the empire’s wealth. The Mughal empire had empowered local people to collect taxes on its behalf. British taxed land crop growers, then they purchased goods with the same money.

    • Britain created a monopoly on Indian goods. When another country wanted to buy Indian goods, first they had to send gold or silvers to Britain. The British gave them a special currency, called Council Bills.

Today, India has the second largest population of English speakers in the world, behind the US. The most popular sport is Cricket, introduced by the British.

• British also began eating Indian food and wearing Indian clothes ex: cashmere. Brought prices like pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, and saffron. Queen Victoria loved curry and other Indian foods.

• The most important export from India was tea. Started exporting Indian tea instead of Chinese tea. Began to add Indian spices like cardamom, star anise, and clover to make chai tea.

• The EIC was originally intended to compete with other European nations for trade in India. Used aggressive diplomacy, economic incentives, military superiority, and power of the British government.

• New ship designs and navigation techniques allowed Europeans to no longer rely upon overland travel.

  • Joint Stock Companies, rather then one person paying for an entire expedition to India or China, a group of people invested in each trip and got a share of the profits. Spread the risk and gave everyone a chance to make money.

British Colonialism:

• The Industrial Revolution served as a primary motivation for British imperialism.

• Britain monopolized trade with India by using local officials as intermediaries to gain political control.

  • Buy raw materials at low prices and sell manufactured goods at high prices for huge profits.

  • Those regions of India that increased their imports from Britain had slower industrial growth at the turn of the 19th century.

  • Many former artisans could not find work and turned to agriculture.

  • Markets restructured to suit industrial British interests.

  • This led to religious conflict.

• The Land Revenuse System instituted by British rulers in India impacted the economy of India.

  • High taxes levied on agriculture for farmers that did not own their land.

  • The Zamindars, a local Indian group were to collect revenue and bring it to the British.

  • Sometimes rent was raised to pay taxes. Widened gap between rich and poor. Lower classes lacked ability to accumulate wealth, leading to income gaps.

  • Poor farmers oppressed, political admin received huge payoffs from them.

  • Healthcare, education, and agricultural productivity of the land was reduced.

• Commercialization of ag is the process by which crops are no longer grown to feed local areas, but instead to sell, often in international markets.

• Commercialization of Indian crops was done to grow British industry, the cotton harvests were shipped to Britain to be processed into textiles.

• India focused on the cultivation of cash crops, such as indigo, coffee, and tea.

• The British built railroads and other infrastructure to transport goods throughout India and to the coast for shipment to England.

  • Connected economic centers across India short term.

  • Long term, led to the spread of disease. Famines were more common.

  • Income inequality grew in rural areas due to the commercialization of agriculture. Rich farmers made large profits from the cultivation of cash crops.

• The lack of geographic unity made India ethnically, religiously, and linguistically diverse.

  • Mughals used diversity and wealth to control 22% of the global economy at height.

  • As the Mughal Empire’s power decreased, European nations in the area began to compete with each other.

• An important political change was the company’s creation of the doctrine of lapse.

  • Traditionally, when a ruler died, leadership would be passed on to the eldest son, if they didn’t have an heir, a ruler would often adopt sons to fill that role.

  • As the British expanded, they refused to recognize those adopted sons, instead, they claimed total control over the kingdoms.

  • To protect new lands, the company hired Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh soldiers known as sepoys. These soldiers were highly trained. Less expensive for the British than bringing in soldiers from Europe. British mistreated the sepoys.

    • 1857 sepoys revolted, at first in the region of Bengal, but the movement spread to other parts.

    • Ethnic and diverse divisions in India played an important role in the rebellion.

    • Muslims who supported the revolt wanted to reestablish Mughal rule.

    • Hindus resented British attempts to undermine the caste system.

    • Sikh soldiers supported the British because they feared Mughal leaders would persecute them.

    • By 1858, the British and allies had defeated the rebel fighters.

    • British replaced the East India Company with British Raj.

      • Controlled region until 1947, when colonized people won independence.

      • Indians and Britain created Pakistan, India, and East Pakistan (Bangladesh).

      • Decades following, Indians took a new anti-imperial actions.

        • Gandhi proposed noncooperation as a form of resistance.

        • Indian workers went on strike, refused to pay axes, and argued in civil disobedience.

        • During World War 2, he demanded full independence as part of the Quit India movement.

        • Advocated strict non violence policy.

    • The argument that many wanted to restore the power of the Mughal empire shows unity among Indian people. They fought for goals beyond their group interests.

    • The Indian Rebellion of 1857 demonstrated that people from a variety of backgrounds could come together to fight the British and fight for a common goal.

    • Leaders of the independence movement, such as Mohandas Gandhi connected this collective goal to the greater idea of Indian nationalism.

    • Historians have argued that the economic consequences of British involvement in India did more to create anti-British sentiment than their religious or ehtnic policies alone.

    • mass famine in places such as Bengal. In 1770, ~30 million people died because they were forced to grow cash crops for British rather than food.

    • Inequality between castes and ethnic groups also field the rebellion.

The Amitasar Massacre reshaped Indian nationalism and led to Britians independence from Britain.

• India's nickname: The Golden Eagle, a thriving and independent nation with a strong economy during the 15th and 17th centuries.

• The Portuguese were the first to begin trading with India. Set up trading forts by 1498. By 1600, the Dutch did the same. British and French followed.

• The British won the Battle of Plassey and colonized India. By 1760, The British government officially let the East India Company rule India in the name of Britain.

• British Raj taxed the people and used a portion to purchase Indian goods for British use, essentially purchasing the products for free.

• The Amritsar Massacre, also known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre was an act of retaliation against anti-British resistance movements by British Raj.

  • Hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians dead and thousands injured.

  • By 1857, sepoys revolved against British rule because of British disrespect to their regions. England intended to convert soldiers to Christianity, and were forced to use rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, which ran counter to their religious beliefs.

  • Mutineers met violent deaths in the hands of British officers, many were hanged or tied to cannons that were fired.

    • The official end of East India Comapn’s rule in India.

    • Fueled Britain's fear of Indian uprisings and justified violent retaliations in the minds of British officers.

    • Led, in part to the Rowaltt Acts.

  • Indian nationalism movement can be divided into two phases, the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 and the Amritsar Massacre in 1919.

    • Before 1919, the goal was merely to gain equality through participation in the governing of India. Not specifically for independence.

    • British had different intentions after 1857, their goal shifted from reform and conversion of Indian society to formalizing England’s role as an imperial power in the colony. Efforts were to ensure that Indian uprisings would not happen again.

    • This led to resistance movements and protests. From boycotts to noncooperation movements to outright civil disobedience.

    • The Massacre marked beginning of the end of British rule in India.

  • In 1882, British implemented the Salt Act. This forbade Indian citizens from collecting or selling salt and forced them to buy it only from British rulers. Britsh rulers levied a heavy tax on the mineral.

  • Gandhi chose the Salt Act to protest because it impacted every Indian across religious and economic statuses.

  • Gandhi and thousands of other Indians defined British law by marching 240 miles to collect slat directly from the sea. British authorities arrested 60,000 unarmed protestors all over India. Gandhi was arrested on May 5, 1930 and released January of 1931.

    • After, Indians began a campaign of outright defiance by making their own salt and textiles, and refused to pay the land tax.

    • British banned Indian national congress and seized their buildings. Imposed a curfew, banned large gatherings, and seized property hoping to end protest.

Russia and Britain

• Russification

  • It was a period when policies were implemented forcing non-Russian identities to adopt Russian culture and beliefs.

    • Ethnic minorities are forced to change their culture and beliefs.

    • It started in the 1700s with the concept of “Russian-ness.”

    • The period of the 1860s is generally regarded.

    • Process whereby non-Russian ethnicities assimilate into Russian culture either voluntarily or involuntarily.

    • It escalated under tsars Alexander 2 and Alexander 3, who rejected outside ethnic groups and nationalities entirely.

    • Jews were heavily persecuted under Russification. As well as Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Belarusians, and Lithuanians.

    • Centralized and modern Russian identity. Would help Russia’s weaknesses and solve issues. Believed it would secure state control within the Empire.

    • All were born out of Russian nationalism.

    • After Russia’s loss in the Crimean War in 1856, leaders believed that reform policies were necessary for providing stability to Russia.

    • Tsar Alexander 2 was assassinated, his successor Alexander 3 was harsher with the policies.

    • Many were persecuted for religion or speaking their native language.

  • History

    • Became an official empire in 1721.

    • The transition to power caused long-term tensions, which led to Russification policies.

    • During the 17 and 18 hundred, Russia was weak compared to Europe.

      • Economic decline, weak military, and struggle to keep up with the country’s political and economic success.

      • Russians believed the minorities were to blame for political and economic decline.

      • Russians believed it would help gain a political and economic advantage over Europe.

• As a result of the industrial revolution, the US began to increase its spheres of influence in Latin America.

  • In Panama, the US took leadership in constructing the Panama Canal, through the Spooner Act. Created problems leading to Panamanian independence.

  • President Roosevelt invoked the Monroe Doctrine

    • Declared to Europe that the US had dominant control in Latin America. Prevented European countries from colonizing Latin America. Allowed US to police.

    • Invoked because of the instability of the Columbian region.

    • See chart for the differences between Big Stick and Dollar Diplomacy.

• Before annexation, the Philippines were under Spanish control.

  • After a American ship suddenly blew up in a Cuban harbon, Americans blamed the Spanish, and this started the Spanish-American War. 3 years later, the Spanish were defeated, and forced Spain to sign the Treaty of Paris (1898). This cave Cuba independence. It specified that Spain’s other Pacific Ocean Colonies would be annexed by US.

  • Main goal of American foreign policy was to increase economic opportunities, and believing annexing the Philippines was an important start, including President McKinley, they viewed it an as important door to Chinese markets due to important cities such as Manila.

  • Those against annexation joined an anti-imperialist league who thought annexation went against America’s beliefs- specifically liberty and freedom promised in the Declaration of Independence.

    • Negro National Democratic Leauge, they labeled annexation as a crime. Chariman F.L. McGhee argued that imperialism was criminal. It would mean the subjugation of people, a form of slavery.

    • One of the most well known activists was Sixto Lopez. He called out America’s contradictory stance.

      • In his famous speech, he brought up America’s fight for independence against the British and drew a direct parallel to the Filipino quest for independence.

      • After the speech, the Philippine-American War broke out in 1899, and Americans defeated them in 1902.

      • Another argument was thought annexation would be expensive for the American government and the money would better be put to use in America.

      • Some anti-imperialists did not want to expand because they didn’t want to add more people of color to the nation.