MJ

Notes on Geoglyphs, Megalithic Architecture, and Early Civilizations

Geoglyphs, Earthworks, and Megalithic Constructions

  • Course recap: Paleolithic finished; geoglyphs introduced and discussed with global examples.
  • Definition reminder: geoglyph = ground-design or motif made on the earth’s surface; related earthworks and large-scale stone structures.
  • Global geoglyphs and megastructures discussed:
    • England: local geoglyph example cited.
    • Peru: Nazca Lines as a key example of geoglyphs.
    • United States earthworks: evidence in different regions.
    • Louisiana: Watson Brake (or Watson Grape Mounds) as one of the earliest known evidences of large earthworks in North America.
    • Poverty Point (Louisiana): a larger, more organized earthwork complex, more sophisticated than earlier forms.
    • Serpent Mound (Ohio): a significant earthwork; other figures such as the "marching bears" and the standing man (described as not exactly standing).
  • Megalithic construction: large-stone architecture and single-stone monuments.
    • Manhirs (megaliths): a single upright monolithic stone.
    • Middle Ages note: context for later megalithic traditions is acknowledged but not the focus here.
  • Post-and-lintel concepts and astronomical alignments:
    • The idea that many megalithic sites were aligned with natural cycles, celestial events, and seasonal changes.
    • Purpose included time-tracking and calendar-like functions; societies relied on such alignments for agricultural and ritual timing.
  • Stonehenge: key ideas and debates
    • Purpose overview: believed to function as an observatory for seasons, sun, moon, and stellar movements.
    • Axes and alignments: several hypotheses about which stones mark important solar events; the avenue is a pathway leading toward the Heel Stone, which acts as a marker.
    • Heel Stone and marker stones: crucial markers for astronomical readings.
    • Antler remains: archaeological evidence of antler pieces used in Stonehenge construction, indicating the materials and techniques involved.
    • Construction challenges without the wheel: the prevailing view is that stones were transported and raised using human labor and simple technology rather than heavy machinery.
    • Rolling method: tree trunks used as rollers to move heavy stones from quarries; multiple workers involved; no wheels documented for this project.
    • Ramp-and-pillar ideas: one theory suggests building an artificial mound with a ramp to drag stones up; another theory emphasizes an interlocking joint system for lintels and stones (described as a form of a joint-antenna system in this lecture).
    • Scale and teamwork: emphasizes the size of the project and collective effort (no fixed deadlines like modern infrastructure projects).
  • Alternate orientations and ongoing debates:
    • New evidence suggests the sunset view might be opposite to popular belief; multiple explanations exist for Stonehenge’s alignments.
    • The markers and axes may have served multiple purposes over time.
  • Transition to Easter Island (Rapa Nui): megasculptures beyond Europe
    • Moai statues: famous megalithic figures on Easter Island; many are not just heads but full bodies, some partially buried.
    • Purpose: imagined as protectors of the island, especially fertility and harvest regions.
    • Sizes and weights: the tallest moai reach about 33\ ext{ft} tall and weigh roughly 85\ ext{tons}.
    • Common misconception in popular media (e.g., SpongeBob references) noted; emphasis on actual archaeological interpretations.
    • The cultural significance of moai: aligned with fertility/harvest concerns and island land management.
  • Terminology: CA (circa) in dating
    • CA is the abbreviation for circa, meaning approximately; used when exact dates are unknown.
    • Explanation example: circa 1983 could be written as ca. 1983 when exact month/day is unknown.
    • Not a state abbreviation (CA) but a dating convention from Italian circa.
  • The concept of magical value
    • Magical value refers to a belief system in which objects or monuments hold ritual or symbolic power beyond their material form.
    • This concept appears across many cultures and contexts, including geoglyphs, monuments, and religious sites.

Civilizations: What Counts and How We Define Them

  • When is a society considered a civilization?
    • Large population and extensive territory (not a village size).
    • Common or official language across a broad region (though in practice, language use varied; an official language might exist for law and administration).
    • Centralized government with a sophisticated bureaucracy or leadership.
    • Complex system of laws and governance; infrastructure for administration and control.
    • Infrastructure and monumental architecture (e.g., roads, temples, walls, public buildings).
    • Religion as an organized institution with rituals, hierarchy, and regulatory norms (often intertwined with state power).
    • Artistic and cultural achievements (art, music, literature) often serving state or religious aims.
    • Written language and/or mathematical systems (some civilizations used complex numerical systems; others, like the Inca, used different notations).
    • Organized military forces and warfare as a means of defense and expansion.
    • Division of labor and social stratification (emergence of social classes).
    • The term civilization derives from civitas, meaning the community of citizens; the concept is tied to identity, governance, and built environment.
  • Focus for this course: the first great river civilizations and their influence on Western civilization
    • The four classical river civilizations are: ext{Egypt}, ext{Mesopotamia}, ext{India}, ext{China}
    • The course emphasizes the first two (Mesopotamia and Egypt) due to their direct cultural and geographic influence on Western civilization.
  • Mesopotamia: the land between the rivers
    • Etymology: Mesopotamia = the land between the rivers, referring to ext{Tigris} and ext{Euphrates}.
    • Chronology note: Mesopotamia’s early developments date back to around 10{,}000\ ext{BCE}; height of civilization in the region occurs roughly 3{,}000$-$4{,}000\ ext{years ago} from that peak period (i.e., ancient Mesopotamia’s height).
    • Dating conventions:
    • BCE/BC: before common era/before Christ.
    • AD/Anno Domini: year of our Lord; years after Christ.
    • Writing: cuneiform language
    • Etymology:
      • Cuneiform means “in the shape of a dagger,” due to wedge-shaped characters.
    • Origin: attributed to Sumerians; later adopted by successive cultures (Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians).
    • Political geography: Mesopotamia was not a single country but a region with shifting polities; several civilizations rose and fell, often conquering and succeeding one another.
    • Cities and layout: typical Mesopotamian city layouts reflect river proximity; evidence includes clay tablets with city maps and water channels, walls, citadels, and temple precincts.
    • Religious and political structure:
    • Polytheistic belief systems.
    • Theocratic governments: religious authority and political power intertwined; priests and rulers shared governance.
    • Temples were central; the main temple complex was the ziggurat (temple-tower), a monumental focal point of the city; the sanctuary at the top housed the patron deity.
  • The ziggurat and city organization
    • Ziggurat characteristics:
    • Step-pyramid shape with multiple ascending levels connected by stairs and ramps.
    • The top level housed a sanctuary; access was highly restricted to elites (priests, king, and royalty).
    • Herodotus’ account and the temple’s religious function are noted; ziggurats were not for commoners and signified divine authority in city life.
    • Materials and preservation: Mesopotamian structures primarily used sun-dried brick due to scarce stone resources; fired brick is more durable but less common in early phases.
    • The Great Ziggurat of Ur: famous surviving reference; most of the original structure is not preserved, but a portion was reconstructed in the late 20th century under modern programs (Saddam Hussein’s campaign in the 1980s to restore several ancient sites).
  • Mesopotamian city examples and imagery
    • Ur: an ancient Sumerian city with a citadel; a fragmentary clay tablet map shows city layout including walls and channels; number 11 (on the map) indicates a reference point; Ur is historically associated with the biblical city and later myths.
    • Ishtar Gate (Babylon): one of the most exquisite walled-city monuments; dedicated to the goddess Ishtar; part of Nebuchadnezzar II’s monumental program.
    • Babylon’s urban planning and defense: the city’s defensive walls and gates exemplify the urban scale and royal sponsorship of monumental architecture.
    • Ishtar Gate bricks were labeled for assembly; bricks were transported and reassembled overseas (e.g., to Germany) as part of colonial-era redeployment and museum reconstruction projects.
  • The Babylonian code and biblical narratives
    • The Tower of Babel (biblical account) is often associated with Babylon; interpreted as a ziggurat that symbolized a human attempt to reach the heavens, leading to divine intervention and the multiplication of languages.
    • Etiological/contextual reading: the Babel story provides a mythic explanation for the diversity of languages and the political fragmentation observed in later Mesopotamian contexts.
    • Babylon’s historical highlights:
    • Hammurabi (Old Babylonian period): famous for a comprehensive legal code; one of the earliest and best-preserved sets of laws.
    • Nebuchadnezzar II (Neo-Babylonian period): legendary builder of Babylon’s monumental projects, including the Ishtar Gate and the Hanging Gardens (the latter being one of the most famous, though its historicity is debated).
  • The Code of Hammurabi
    • Not the earliest law code, but the best-preserved and most extensive surviving code from ancient Mesopotamia.
    • Scope: laws covering family, commerce, property, and urban infrastructure; more than 200 laws with prescribed punishments.
    • Philosophical characteristic: the emphasis that the law applies across the realm, with punishments that are sometimes harsh or unequal by modern standards; punishment is closely linked to the offense, not just the act (retaliation or compensation). Examples cited (paraphrased):
    • If a builder constructs a house and it collapses, killing the owner, the builder is put to death; if it kills the owner's son, the son is executed; if a slave is killed, compensation is owed in slave terms; if walls fail, the builder must rebuild at his own cost.
    • The code reflects responsibilities of builders and consequences for architectural failures.
  • Ishtar Gate and Nebuchadnezzar II
    • The Ishtar Gate: part of Nebuchadnezzar II’s program; elaborate and richly decorated gate with depictions of deities.
    • The gate is celebrated as a state-sponsored monument and a symbol of Neo-Babylonian splendor; bricks were labeled for assembly and shipped abroad for display in European museums.
    • The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II): famed legendary garden described as a terraced, lush structure with fountains; recognized as part of Babylonian myth and historical discourse, though physical evidence is scant.
  • Sargon II and urban dynastic planning
    • Sargon II commissioned a city to house his palace and, inside that palace, a ziggurat.
    • Illustrates the hierarchical, multi-layered urban design: access to the city is restricted, access to the palace is more restricted, and access to the ziggurat is even more restricted.
  • Key takeaways and connections
    • Early civilizations emerge along major river systems; control of water, religion, law, and monumental architecture anchor state power.
    • Theocratic governance intertwines religion with political authority, shaping public life and urban form (temples and ziggurats dominate city plans).
    • Writing systems (cuneiform) and legal codes (Hammurabi) codify social order and economic transactions, enabling larger, more complex societies.
    • The interplay of myth and history (Tower of Babel, Hanging Gardens) demonstrates how monuments and narratives reinforce cultural identities and legitimacy.
  • Closing notes and next steps
    • The lecturer indicates continuation in the next class; emphasis on understanding how ancient architectures reflect political power, ritual, and social organization.
    • Students are reminded of the CA dating convention and the importance of distinguishing myth from history when interpreting ancient sources.
  • Quick glossary reminders
    • CA: circa, meaning approximately; used when exact dates are unknown.
    • Ziggurat: Mesopotamian temple-tower, central, monumental, often with restricted access.
    • Cuneiform: wedge-shaped writing system of ancient Mesopotamia.
    • Theocracy: state power rooted in religious authority; religion governs political decisions.
    • Hammurabi’s Code: one of the oldest complete law codes; ca. 1754 BCE (approximate dating varies by source).
    • Ishtar Gate: monumental gate of Babylon dedicated to the goddess Ishtar; adorned with glazed bricks.
    • Hanging Gardens: legendary Neo-Babylonian garden complex, attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II; historicity debated.

Quick reference dates and terms (for exam prep)

  • Mesopotamian height: roughly 3{,}000$-$4{,}000\ ext{years ago} from roughly the period since 10{,}000\ ext{BCE}.
  • Cuneiform meaning: wedge-shaped, due to the shape of the characters; transmission from Sumerians to successive cultures.
  • Major figures: Hammurabi (Code of Hammurabi), Nebuchadnezzar II (Hanging Gardens, Ishtar Gate), Sargon II (city planning and palace), Herodotus (zigurats described in ancient texts).
  • Major sites: Ur (ziggurat remains), Ishtar Gate (Babylon), Hanging Gardens (Babylon—legend), Poverty Point (Louisiana), Watson Brake (Louisiana), Serpent Mound (Ohio), Easter Island (Rapa Nui).
  • Major concepts: geoglyphs, earthworks, megalithic construction, post-and-lintel (and related transport/assembly challenges), theocracy, monumental architecture, written language, law codes, and etiological myths.