Notes on Geoglyphs, Megalithic Architecture, and Early Civilizations
Geoglyphs, Earthworks, and Megalithic Constructions
Course recap: Paleolithic finished; geoglyphs introduced and discussed with global examples.
Definition reminder: geoglyph = ground-design or motif made on the earth’s surface; related earthworks and large-scale stone structures.
Global geoglyphs and megastructures discussed:
England: local geoglyph example cited.
Peru: Nazca Lines as a key example of geoglyphs.
United States earthworks: evidence in different regions.
Louisiana: Watson Brake (or Watson Grape Mounds) as one of the earliest known evidences of large earthworks in North America.
Poverty Point (Louisiana): a larger, more organized earthwork complex, more sophisticated than earlier forms.
Serpent Mound (Ohio): a significant earthwork; other figures such as the "marching bears" and the standing man (described as not exactly standing).
Megalithic construction: large-stone architecture and single-stone monuments.
Manhirs (megaliths): a single upright monolithic stone.
Middle Ages note: context for later megalithic traditions is acknowledged but not the focus here.
Post-and-lintel concepts and astronomical alignments:
The idea that many megalithic sites were aligned with natural cycles, celestial events, and seasonal changes.
Purpose included time-tracking and calendar-like functions; societies relied on such alignments for agricultural and ritual timing.
Stonehenge: key ideas and debates
Purpose overview: believed to function as an observatory for seasons, sun, moon, and stellar movements.
Axes and alignments: several hypotheses about which stones mark important solar events; the avenue is a pathway leading toward the Heel Stone, which acts as a marker.
Heel Stone and marker stones: crucial markers for astronomical readings.
Antler remains: archaeological evidence of antler pieces used in Stonehenge construction, indicating the materials and techniques involved.
Construction challenges without the wheel: the prevailing view is that stones were transported and raised using human labor and simple technology rather than heavy machinery.
Rolling method: tree trunks used as rollers to move heavy stones from quarries; multiple workers involved; no wheels documented for this project.
Ramp-and-pillar ideas: one theory suggests building an artificial mound with a ramp to drag stones up; another theory emphasizes an interlocking joint system for lintels and stones (described as a form of a joint-antenna system in this lecture).
Scale and teamwork: emphasizes the size of the project and collective effort (no fixed deadlines like modern infrastructure projects).
Alternate orientations and ongoing debates:
New evidence suggests the sunset view might be opposite to popular belief; multiple explanations exist for Stonehenge’s alignments.
The markers and axes may have served multiple purposes over time.
Transition to Easter Island (Rapa Nui): megasculptures beyond Europe
Moai statues: famous megalithic figures on Easter Island; many are not just heads but full bodies, some partially buried.
Purpose: imagined as protectors of the island, especially fertility and harvest regions.
Sizes and weights: the tallest moai reach about 33\ ext{ft} tall and weigh roughly 85\ ext{tons}.
Common misconception in popular media (e.g., SpongeBob references) noted; emphasis on actual archaeological interpretations.
The cultural significance of moai: aligned with fertility/harvest concerns and island land management.
Terminology: CA (circa) in dating
CA is the abbreviation for circa, meaning approximately; used when exact dates are unknown.
Explanation example: circa 1983 could be written as ca. 1983 when exact month/day is unknown.
Not a state abbreviation (CA) but a dating convention from Italian circa.
The concept of magical value
Magical value refers to a belief system in which objects or monuments hold ritual or symbolic power beyond their material form.
This concept appears across many cultures and contexts, including geoglyphs, monuments, and religious sites.
Civilizations: What Counts and How We Define Them
When is a society considered a civilization?
Large population and extensive territory (not a village size).
Common or official language across a broad region (though in practice, language use varied; an official language might exist for law and administration).
Centralized government with a sophisticated bureaucracy or leadership.
Complex system of laws and governance; infrastructure for administration and control.
Infrastructure and monumental architecture (e.g., roads, temples, walls, public buildings).
Religion as an organized institution with rituals, hierarchy, and regulatory norms (often intertwined with state power).
Artistic and cultural achievements (art, music, literature) often serving state or religious aims.
Written language and/or mathematical systems (some civilizations used complex numerical systems; others, like the Inca, used different notations).
Organized military forces and warfare as a means of defense and expansion.
Division of labor and social stratification (emergence of social classes).
The term civilization derives from civitas, meaning the community of citizens; the concept is tied to identity, governance, and built environment.
Focus for this course: the first great river civilizations and their influence on Western civilization
The four classical river civilizations are: ext{Egypt}, ext{Mesopotamia}, ext{India}, ext{China}
The course emphasizes the first two (Mesopotamia and Egypt) due to their direct cultural and geographic influence on Western civilization.
Mesopotamia: the land between the rivers
Etymology: Mesopotamia = the land between the rivers, referring to ext{Tigris} and ext{Euphrates}.
Chronology note: Mesopotamia’s early developments date back to around 10{,}000\ ext{BCE}; height of civilization in the region occurs roughly 3{,}000$-$4{,}000\ ext{years ago} from that peak period (i.e., ancient Mesopotamia’s height).
Dating conventions:
BCE/BC: before common era/before Christ.
AD/Anno Domini: year of our Lord; years after Christ.
Writing: cuneiform language
Etymology:
Cuneiform means “in the shape of a dagger,” due to wedge-shaped characters.
Origin: attributed to Sumerians; later adopted by successive cultures (Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians).
Political geography: Mesopotamia was not a single country but a region with shifting polities; several civilizations rose and fell, often conquering and succeeding one another.
Cities and layout: typical Mesopotamian city layouts reflect river proximity; evidence includes clay tablets with city maps and water channels, walls, citadels, and temple precincts.
Religious and political structure:
Polytheistic belief systems.
Theocratic governments: religious authority and political power intertwined; priests and rulers shared governance.
Temples were central; the main temple complex was the ziggurat (temple-tower), a monumental focal point of the city; the sanctuary at the top housed the patron deity.
The ziggurat and city organization
Ziggurat characteristics:
Step-pyramid shape with multiple ascending levels connected by stairs and ramps.
The top level housed a sanctuary; access was highly restricted to elites (priests, king, and royalty).
Herodotus’ account and the temple’s religious function are noted; ziggurats were not for commoners and signified divine authority in city life.
Materials and preservation: Mesopotamian structures primarily used sun-dried brick due to scarce stone resources; fired brick is more durable but less common in early phases.
The Great Ziggurat of Ur: famous surviving reference; most of the original structure is not preserved, but a portion was reconstructed in the late 20th century under modern programs (Saddam Hussein’s campaign in the 1980s to restore several ancient sites).
Mesopotamian city examples and imagery
Ur: an ancient Sumerian city with a citadel; a fragmentary clay tablet map shows city layout including walls and channels; number 11 (on the map) indicates a reference point; Ur is historically associated with the biblical city and later myths.
Ishtar Gate (Babylon): one of the most exquisite walled-city monuments; dedicated to the goddess Ishtar; part of Nebuchadnezzar II’s monumental program.
Babylon’s urban planning and defense: the city’s defensive walls and gates exemplify the urban scale and royal sponsorship of monumental architecture.
Ishtar Gate bricks were labeled for assembly; bricks were transported and reassembled overseas (e.g., to Germany) as part of colonial-era redeployment and museum reconstruction projects.
The Babylonian code and biblical narratives
The Tower of Babel (biblical account) is often associated with Babylon; interpreted as a ziggurat that symbolized a human attempt to reach the heavens, leading to divine intervention and the multiplication of languages.
Etiological/contextual reading: the Babel story provides a mythic explanation for the diversity of languages and the political fragmentation observed in later Mesopotamian contexts.
Babylon’s historical highlights:
Hammurabi (Old Babylonian period): famous for a comprehensive legal code; one of the earliest and best-preserved sets of laws.
Nebuchadnezzar II (Neo-Babylonian period): legendary builder of Babylon’s monumental projects, including the Ishtar Gate and the Hanging Gardens (the latter being one of the most famous, though its historicity is debated).
The Code of Hammurabi
Not the earliest law code, but the best-preserved and most extensive surviving code from ancient Mesopotamia.
Scope: laws covering family, commerce, property, and urban infrastructure; more than 200 laws with prescribed punishments.
Philosophical characteristic: the emphasis that the law applies across the realm, with punishments that are sometimes harsh or unequal by modern standards; punishment is closely linked to the offense, not just the act (retaliation or compensation). Examples cited (paraphrased):
If a builder constructs a house and it collapses, killing the owner, the builder is put to death; if it kills the owner's son, the son is executed; if a slave is killed, compensation is owed in slave terms; if walls fail, the builder must rebuild at his own cost.
The code reflects responsibilities of builders and consequences for architectural failures.
Ishtar Gate and Nebuchadnezzar II
The Ishtar Gate: part of Nebuchadnezzar II’s program; elaborate and richly decorated gate with depictions of deities.
The gate is celebrated as a state-sponsored monument and a symbol of Neo-Babylonian splendor; bricks were labeled for assembly and shipped abroad for display in European museums.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II): famed legendary garden described as a terraced, lush structure with fountains; recognized as part of Babylonian myth and historical discourse, though physical evidence is scant.
Sargon II and urban dynastic planning
Sargon II commissioned a city to house his palace and, inside that palace, a ziggurat.
Illustrates the hierarchical, multi-layered urban design: access to the city is restricted, access to the palace is more restricted, and access to the ziggurat is even more restricted.
Key takeaways and connections
Early civilizations emerge along major river systems; control of water, religion, law, and monumental architecture anchor state power.
Theocratic governance intertwines religion with political authority, shaping public life and urban form (temples and ziggurats dominate city plans).
Writing systems (cuneiform) and legal codes (Hammurabi) codify social order and economic transactions, enabling larger, more complex societies.
The interplay of myth and history (Tower of Babel, Hanging Gardens) demonstrates how monuments and narratives reinforce cultural identities and legitimacy.
Closing notes and next steps
The lecturer indicates continuation in the next class; emphasis on understanding how ancient architectures reflect political power, ritual, and social organization.
Students are reminded of the CA dating convention and the importance of distinguishing myth from history when interpreting ancient sources.
Quick glossary reminders
CA: circa, meaning approximately; used when exact dates are unknown.
Ziggurat: Mesopotamian temple-tower, central, monumental, often with restricted access.
Cuneiform: wedge-shaped writing system of ancient Mesopotamia.
Theocracy: state power rooted in religious authority; religion governs political decisions.
Hammurabi’s Code: one of the oldest complete law codes; ca. 1754 BCE (approximate dating varies by source).
Ishtar Gate: monumental gate of Babylon dedicated to the goddess Ishtar; adorned with glazed bricks.
Hanging Gardens: legendary Neo-Babylonian garden complex, attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II; historicity debated.
Quick reference dates and terms (for exam prep)
Mesopotamian height: roughly 3{,}000$-$4{,}000\ ext{years ago} from roughly the period since 10{,}000\ ext{BCE}.
Cuneiform meaning: wedge-shaped, due to the shape of the characters; transmission from Sumerians to successive cultures.
Major figures: Hammurabi (Code of Hammurabi), Nebuchadnezzar II (Hanging Gardens, Ishtar Gate), Sargon II (city planning and palace), Herodotus (zigurats described in ancient texts).
Major sites: Ur (ziggurat remains), Ishtar Gate (Babylon), Hanging Gardens (Babylon—legend), Poverty Point (Louisiana), Watson Brake (Louisiana), Serpent Mound (Ohio), Easter Island (Rapa Nui).
Major concepts: geoglyphs, earthworks, megalithic construction, post-and-lintel (and related transport/assembly challenges), theocracy, monumental architecture, written language, law codes, and etiological myths.