Glial cells: Non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system that provide support and protection for neurons, playing crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis, forming myelin, and participating in signal transmission.

Neurons: Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses, facilitating communication within the nervous system and between the brain and the rest of the body.

Reflex arc: A neural pathway that mediates a reflex action, consisting of a sensory neuron, an interneuron (in some cases), and a motor neuron, allowing for rapid responses to stimuli without direct involvement of the brain.

Sensory neurons: Specialized neurons that carry sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system, enabling the perception of stimuli such as touch, pain, temperature, and taste.

Motor neurons: Specialized neurons that transmit motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands, facilitating movement and physiological responses.

Interneurons: Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system, playing a critical role in processing information and coordinating reflexes by integrating signals from multiple sources.

Neural transmission: The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, allowing for the rapid relay of information throughout the nervous system.

All-or-nothing principle: The concept that a neuron either fires completely or not at all, ensuring that the transmission of signals across the nervous system is consistent and reliable.

Action potential: The change in electrical potential that occurs when a neuron is activated, leading to the propagation of an electrical impulse along the axon and the eventual release of neurotransmitters at the synapse.

Depolarization: The initial phase of an action potential, where the neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative (more positive) due to the influx of sodium ions, ultimately triggering the firing of the neuron.

Repolarization: The phase following depolarization, during which potassium ions exit the neuron, restoring the membrane potential to its resting state and allowing the neuron to prepare for the next action potential.

Refractory period: The time following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire another action potential, ensuring that signals are transmitted in a one-way direction and allowing for recovery of ion concentrations.

● Resting potential: The state of a neuron when it is not actively firing an action potential, characterized by a stable negative membrane potential, typically around -70 mV, maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and the selective permeability of the membrane to ions.

● Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after having transmitted a nerve impulse, thereby terminating the signal and allowing the neuron to recycle the neurotransmitters for future use.

● Firing threshold: The level of depolarization that must be reached for a neuron to initiate an action potential, typically around -55 mV, which triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels and leads to the rapid influx of sodium ions.

Multiple sclerosis: A chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system by damaging the myelin sheath surrounding nerve fibers, leading to disruptions in communication between the brain and the rest of the body, and resulting in symptoms such as muscle weakness, coordination issues, and cognitive difficulties.

Myasthenia gravis : An autoimmune disorder characterized by weakness and rapid fatigue of voluntary muscles, caused by the immune system attacking acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, thereby impairing communication between nerves and muscles.

Neurotransmitters: excitatory or inhibitory

• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.

• Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness, and regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

• Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter that is part of the body's stress response, involved in attention and responding actions in the brain.

• Glutamate: The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, playing a key role in learning and memory.

• GABA: The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, helping to reduce neuronal excitability.

• Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that act to relieve pain and induce feelings of pleasure or euphoria.

• Substance P: A neurotransmitter associated with the pain perception pathway.

• Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.

• Agonist: A substance that enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by stimulating its receptors.

• Antagonist: A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.

Hormones:

• Adrenaline: A hormone that prepares the body for fight-or-flight response.

• Oxytocin: A hormone associated with social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth.

• Agonist vs. antagonist: An agonist enhances, while an antagonist inhibits the effect of neurotransmitters.

• Reuptake inhibitors: Drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing the availability of these chemicals in the synaptic cleft.

• Brainstem: The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and is responsible for basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

• Medulla: The lower portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

• Reticular activating system: A network of neurons in the brainstem that plays a crucial role in regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.

• Reward center: Areas in the brain, including the nucleus accumbens, that are activated by rewarding stimuli, significantly involving the release of dopamine.

• Cerebellum: A structure located at the back of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and motor learning.

• Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions, including reasoning, language, and information processing.

• Hemispheres: The two halves of the brain (left and right) that specialize in different functions and processes.

• Limbic system: A set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory processing, and motivation, including the amygdala and hippocampus.

• Thalamus: The brain's relay station for sensory information, directing it to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

• Hypothalamus: A small region of the brain that regulates several autonomic processes, including temperature, hunger, and the sleep-wake cycle, and controls the pituitary gland.

• Pituitary gland: A pea-sized gland at the base of the brain that controls hormone production and releases hormones into the bloodstream to influence other glands.

• Amygdala: A part of the limbic system involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and aggression.

• Hippocampus: A region of the brain essential for memory formation and spatial navigation.

• Corpus callosum: A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

• Lobes of the cortex: Divisions of the cerebral cortex, each associated with different functions:

  • Occipital lobes: Responsible for visual processing.

  • Frontal lobes: Involved in reasoning, planning, movement, and problem-solving; includes the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex.

  • Temporal lobes: Responsible for processing auditory information and is involved in memory and emotion.

  • Parietal lobes: Processes sensory information and spatial orientation; includes the somatosensory cortex and association areas.

• Split brain research: Studies carried out on patients who have had their corpus callosum severed, providing insights into the lateralization of brain function.

• Specialization of right/left hemispheres: Refers to the idea that the two hemispheres of the brain have different functions, with the left often associated with logical and analytical tasks and the right with creative processes.

• Broca’s area: A region in the frontal lobe crucial for language production.

• Wernicke's area: A region in the temporal lobe important for language comprehension.

• Aphasia: A language disorder resulting from brain damage, affecting the ability to communicate effectively.

• Test with split brain patients: Research conducted to understand the specialized functions of each hemisphere by observing patients who have undergone a split-brain procedure.

• Contralateral organization: The organization pattern in which one hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

• Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, or injury.

• EEG (Electroencephalogram): A test that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

• fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

• Case studies: Detailed investigations of a single entity or a small group, used to explore complex phenomena in real-life contexts.

• Lesioning procedure: A method used in research to study the effects of damage to specific brain areas by intentionally creating lesions in those areas.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprises the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and controlling activities of the body.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of all the nerves outside the CNS, connecting the CNS to the rest of the body, and includes sensory and motor pathways.

• Somatic Nervous System: A part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements by innervating skeletal muscles and relaying sensory information to the CNS.

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): A component of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

• Sympathetic Nervous System: A branch of the ANS responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response, preparing the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate and diverting blood to essential organs.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System: A branch of the ANS that promotes the 'rest-and-digest' response, helping to conserve energy and enhance bodily functions such as digestion and relaxation.