McShane_12e_CH02_FINAL

Chapter Two: Individual Differences: Personality and Values

Learning Objectives

• Define personality and relate the Big Five personality factors to workplace behavior and performance.

• Describe the dark triad personality and its organizational impacts.

• Summarize psychological types in the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and its practical applications in organizations.

• Discuss Schwartz’s individual values model and conditions influencing behavior.

• Describe four ethical principles along with three factors affecting ethical behavior.

• Identify five cross-cultural values and explore cultural diversity within Canada.

Personality in Organizations

Personality is defined as an enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that consistently characterize a person across various situations. This definition underscores the complexity of human behavior in an organizational setting and points to personality traits as the observable tendencies that influence how individuals behave.

Nature vs Nurture of Personality

The interplay between genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) plays a significant role in shaping personality. Research indicates that while many core traits are inherited, experiences, education, and social environment also contribute significantly to personality development. Notably, the stabilization of personality tends to occur in young adulthood, which solidifies an individual’s self-concept. However, it is essential to acknowledge that personality traits can change over time under certain circumstances, including major life events or deliberate personal development efforts.

Five-Factor Personality Model

The Five-Factor Personality Model provides a comprehensive framework to understand personality traits:

1. Conscientiousness: Individuals who score high in conscientiousness are organized, dependable, goal-oriented, disciplined, and industrious. This trait correlates with strong performance at work.

2. Agreeableness: Those who exhibit high agreeableness are typically trusting, helpful, considerate, generous, and flexible, making them valuable in team settings.

3. Neuroticism: This trait embodies a tendency towards anxiety, insecurity, self-criticism, and emotional instability. High levels of neuroticism can affect workplace interactions and stress management.

4. Openness to Experience: Individuals who are open to experience are creative, imaginative, curious, and unconventional. They often excel in environments that require innovation and adaptability.

5. Extraversion: Extraverted individuals are sociable, energetic, and often seen as leaders. They tend to thrive in collaborative and dynamic work environments.

Five-Factor Model and Work Performance

Research indicates a correlation between the Big Five personality traits and workplace performance. For instance, extraversion is strongly linked to leadership effectiveness and success in sales roles. Openness to experience can predict creative performance in roles requiring innovation, whereas conscientiousness consistently demonstrates the importance of dependability in achieving work-related goals. Although agreeableness facilitates teamwork and collaboration, it often has limited predictive power for proactive behaviors, highlighting the need for a diverse range of personality traits within organizational teams.

Five-Factor Model Caveats

While high scores on the Big Five traits may indicate positive outcomes, it is crucial to recognize that specific traits may serve as more accurate predictors of success than their broader categories. Moreover, personality is not static; it can evolve based on experiences, learning, and shifts in the external environment. The Five-Factor Model also does not encompass the entire spectrum of personality concepts, leaving gaps in understanding the complexities of human behavior at work.

The Dark Triad

The Dark Triad consists of three distinct but related personality traits:

• Machiavellianism: Characterized by manipulative and deceitful behavior, high self-interest, and a lack of empathy. Individuals high in this trait may engage in unethical practices for personal gain.

• Narcissism: Marked by an obsession with personal superiority and attention-seeking behaviors, individuals with high narcissism often struggle to accept criticism and thrive on recognition.

• Psychopathy: Defined by a lack of empathy, impulsivity, and thrill-seeking behaviors, individuals with psychopathic traits may engage in socially predatory activities, posing challenges in teamwork and organizational cohesion.

Dark Triad and Workplace Behavior

The Dark Triad is associated with various negative workplace behaviors, such as dishonesty, organizational politics, and aggression. Despite these detrimental traits, individuals embodying the Dark Triad may experience career advancement due to their assertiveness and manipulative skills, emphasizing the nuanced interplay between personality and professional success.

Jungian Personality Theory and MBTI

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used personality assessment tool based on Jungian personality theory. While the MBTI provides valuable insights into individual psychological types, it has faced criticism regarding its validity and reliability. Limitations of the MBTI include the ambiguity in defining personality types and the forced-choice nature of the assessment, which may lead to skewed results. Despite these concerns, supporters of the MBTI argue that it offers beneficial frameworks for understanding interpersonal dynamics and encourages effective communication in organizational settings.

Values in the Workplace

Values, defined as stable, evaluative beliefs that guide preferences and choices, have a tangible impact on workplace behavior and ethics. Distinctions are made between personal values held by individuals and shared values prevalent within organizational culture. Conflicts among these values can arise, and they are predominantly shaped by social and environmental influences rather than innate characteristics.

Schwartz’s Values Model

In Schwartz’s model, values are categorized along a circumplex framework, which highlights conflicts and compatibilities between various values. Understanding these relationships is crucial for recognizing how values influence decision-making processes and behaviors in the workplace.

How Values Influence Decisions and Behavior

Values significantly affect what choices individuals perceive as attractive and how consistently they act in alignment with those preferences. This alignment guides individual actions, perceptions of situations, and interactions with others.

Factors When Values Don’t Predict Behavior

While values are generally stable, external situational factors, counter-motivational influences, and awareness of one's own values can impact decisions and behaviors, leading to potential dissonance.

Values Congruence

The alignment between personal and organizational values often correlates with positive outcomes such as job satisfaction and decreased turnover rates. Nonetheless, excessive congruence can result in a lack of diversity in thought and behavior, potentially giving rise to corporate cultures reminiscent of cult-like dynamics.

Ethical Values and Behavior

Ethics encompass the moral principles that dictate right and wrong actions, guiding behavior in professional contexts. Four key ethical principles are recognized:

1. Utilitarianism: Focuses on outcomes and seeks the greatest good for the greatest number.

2. Individual Rights: Emphasizes respect for individual entitlements and personal freedoms.

3. Distributive Justice: Concerns itself with the fair distribution of resources and opportunities.

4. Ethic of Care: Highlights the importance of maintaining relationships and the care one extends to others.

Moral Intensity and Ethics

Moral intensity refers to how important individuals perceive ethical dilemmas, often weighing the potential consequences and the impacts on stakeholders involved.

Moral Sensitivity in Ethics

Moral sensitivity is the ability to recognize moral issues and their relevance. Individuals with higher empathy generally demonstrate greater moral sensitivity, allowing for more ethical decision-making in complex situations.

Supporting Ethical Behavior

Organizations can nurture ethical behavior through various means, including the adoption of comprehensive ethical codes, training programs to reinforce ethical practices, systems for reporting wrongdoing, and fostering a culture that prioritizes ethical behavior at every level.

Cultural Values and Diversity

• Individualism: Highlights personal freedom and self-sufficiency, varying widely across global cultures.

• Collectivism: Stresses group harmony and cohesive relationships, with substantial implications for team dynamics and organizational culture.

• Power Distance: The extent to which less powerful members defer to authority varies culturally, reflecting disparities in power and influence.

• Uncertainty Avoidance: Varies across cultures, indicating comfort levels with ambiguity; some cultures favor structured and predictable environments.

• Achievement vs. Nurturing Cultural Orientation: Distinguishes between cultures that value competitive achievement and those prioritizing relational harmony.

Cultural Diversity within Canada

Canada exemplifies deep cultural diversity in values and personality traits, shaped by historical influences and migration patterns. A key contrast exists between Canadian and American values, particularly regarding moral permissiveness and the balance of collective versus individual rights, alongside differing relationships with religion and authority, highlighting the need for sensitivity to cultural nuances in organizational contexts.

Examples of Personality Traits in the Workplace

1. Conscientiousness:

   • A project manager who effectively organizes tasks, meets deadlines, and ensures that team members are accountable for their work exemplifies high conscientiousness. Their reliability fosters trust within the team and contributes to project success.

2. Agreeableness:

   • A team member who actively listens during discussions, offers to help colleagues with their workload, and mediates conflicts demonstrates high agreeableness. This trait can enhance group cohesion and promote a collaborative environment.

3. Neuroticism:

   • An employee who experiences significant anxiety about meeting performance targets, leading to challenges in handling stress during peak periods, illustrates high neuroticism. This trait may affect their ability to stay calm in high-pressure situations.

4. Openness to Experience:

   • A creative designer who frequently proposes innovative ideas for campaigns and embraces unconventional approaches represents high openness to experience. Their willingness to explore new concepts can drive a company’s creativity and adaptability.

5. Extraversion:

   • A sales representative who thrives in social settings, actively engages with clients, and often takes the lead in team meetings reflects high extraversion. This trait is advantageous in roles that require networking and relationship-building.

Examples of Dark Triad Traits in the Workplace

1. Machiavellianism:

   • An individual in a managerial position who engages in office politics, manipulates team dynamics to position themselves favorably, and takes credit for others' work demonstrates Machiavellian traits.

2. Narcissism:

   • A high-ranking executive who focuses on their personal achievements and demands constant recognition, often dismissing the contributions of their team, exemplifies narcissism. This behavior can distort team dynamics and discourage collaboration.

3. Psychopathy:

   • An employee who displays impulsive behaviors, lacks genuine empathy for their teammates, and engages in risky decision-making without considering the broader impact on the organization represents psychopathic traits. This can lead to a toxic work environment.

Examples of Values in Organizational Culture

1. Utilitarianism:

   • A company that prioritizes making decisions that lead to the greatest good for the highest number of stakeholders, such as implementing environmentally sustainable practices, exemplifies utilitarian ethical principles.

2. Individual Rights:

   • An organization that enforces a strict non-discrimination policy, ensuring all employees have the right to equal treatment and freedom from harassment, demonstrates respect for individual rights.

3. Distributive Justice:

   • A firm that regularly reviews and adjusts salaries to ensure fair compensation based on the effort and contribution of employees, regardless of their job title, embodies distributive justice principles.

4. Ethic of Care:

   • A team that adopts flexible work arrangements to support employees’ family needs and wellbeing illustrates an ethic of care culture, emphasizing the importance of relationships and mutual support within the organization.