Indigenous 101 (5)

Week 6: The Métis

Definition and Origin

• Métis: From French meaning mixed or mixing (métissage).

• Initially referred to mixed-race children of French men and Indigenous women.

• Descendants of English or Scottish men and Indigenous women were labeled as “half-breed” or “country born.”

Identity of Métis

• Small “m” and big “M” Métis: Clarifies the common misconception; references a common stereotype of “Métis-as-mixed.”

• Race-shifting: Describes the increase in the number of Métis in Eastern Canada and the settlers' practice of self-Indigenization.

• Métis are recognized as Indigenous due to their own political institutions, linguistic practices, and cultural forms, influenced by kinship with Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, and Dene peoples (Darryl Leroux).

Acadian Métis

• Male crews from fishing and trading vessels left many descendants among the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet.

• These children were raised as Mi’kmaq and Maliseet; French settlers arrived throughout the 17th century encouraging mixing with Acadian Métis.

• No distinct social group emerged as a result.

French Fur Trade

• Coureurs de bois: French fur traders who moved westward and established families with Cree and Ojibwa women.

• Marriages often served trade interests alongside personal connections; Indigenous wives played crucial roles as interpreters and skilled domestic workers (e.g., making moccasins, drying meat, dressing furs).

Women in the Fur Trade

• Despite the western Canadian fur trade being male-dominated, women were vital to the trade's societal development.

• Alliances with Indigenous women were central to the progress of trade across Canada.

Emerging Métis Culture

Mid-1700s Developments

• A large “mixed” population emerged around the Great Lakes, leading to increased intermarriages within mixed blood communities.

• Cultural convergence of French, Scottish, Anishinaabe, and Cree elements resulted in distinct identity formation.

• By the early 19th century, non-Indigenous settlers significantly increased in the Great Lakes area, affecting Métis ways of life and contributing to the fur trade's decline through overhunting.

Red River Métis

• Cultural Traditions: Distinct practices emerged in the early 19th century, particularly around the confluence of Red and Assiniboine Rivers (present-day Winnipeg).

• The Red River settlement became the homeland of the Métis nation, who established a buffalo hunting culture, vital for their economy.

Buffalo Hunt and Economic Role

• The buffalo hunt was economically driven rather than spiritual, exploiting extensive annual hunts for profit.

• working similar to Plains First Nations: involved chasing buffalo, processing meat into pemmican (dried and preserved).

• Pemmican made by women, who had primary responsibility for meat transformation - a vital food product that preserved well.

Métis Dress and Artistry

Distinct Wear and Crafts

• Métis clothing merged elements from European and First Nations attire, creating a unique style:

  • Men: long hooded coats and bright sashes.

  • Women: European dresses with dark shawls or blankets and moccasins.

• L’Assomption Sash: Significant part of Métis identity with various practical uses.

Beadwork

• Known as the “flower beadwork people” by Dakota, many Métis women became skilled in beadwork, creating elaborate designs on clothing and accessories.

Language and Social Life

• Michif Language: Evolved from French nouns and Cree verbs, variations spoken in the Prairies.

• Social gatherings celebrated with traditional foods, dances, and fiddle music, with the famous Red River Jig dance prominently featured.

Nationalism and Resistance

Key Events

• Métis nationalism solidified in the Red River settlement, marked by significant battles (Seven Oaks, Grand Coteau du Missouri, resistance efforts).

• Early 19th-century Red River settlement was characterized by log cabins and a farm-based lifestyle.

Conflicts with Settlers

Battle of Seven Oaks (1816)

• Tensions rose as HBCo granted Lord Selkirk land in Métis territory, fearing loss of land and livelihoods.

• Cuthbert Grant led Métis resistance, climaxing in a decisive victory.

Battle of Grand Coteau du Missouri (1851)

• As hunting grounds decreased, increased conflicts arose with Dakota.

• Métis were bound through kinship relations to Cree and Ojibwa, their traditional enemies.

Declines and Changes

Winds of Change by the 1860s

• The fur trade's decline and shortages in buffalo herds forced Métis to adapt.

• Influx of settlers along with economic shifts led to social changes, and frustrations grew amid crop failures.

Red River Resistance (1869-70)

• HBCo's transfer of Rupert's Land to Canada ignited disputes over land rights, where settlers neglected Métis land systems.

• Riel emerged as a key figure, initiating resistance and forming a provisional government.

Manitoba Act of 1870

• Created in direct response to Métis claims, incorporating Red River into Canada and establishing the province of Manitoba, promising land titles and serious rights for Métis.

• However, intentions of the act were poorly operationalized, overshadowed by settlers claiming land.

Contemporary Issues

Constitutional Rights

• Pursued inclusion of Métis in the Canadian Constitution by leaders like Harry Daniels during the 1970s, leading to Section 35(1) acknowledging Indigenous rights.

• Ongoing struggle over Métis rights continues to evolve with legal challenges and definitions.

The Daniels Case (2016)

• This case highlighted the need for clear government responsibilities toward Métis and non-status Indians, emphasizing their rights under the Constitution and federal jurisdiction.