unit 6..

Here are flashcards for each term, including definitions and examples to help you better understand them:

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### Attributions

Definition: The process of explaining the causes of behavior or events.

Example: If someone is late, you might attribute it to traffic (situational) or their laziness (dispositional).

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### Dispositional Attributions

Definition: Attributing behavior to internal characteristics, such as personality or abilities.

Example: Assuming someone is rude because they have a bad temper.

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### Situational Attributions

Definition: Attributing behavior to external factors, such as the environment or circumstances.

Example: Assuming someone is rude because they had a bad day.

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### Explanatory Style

Definition: How individuals explain the causes of events, either optimistically or pessimistically.

Example: An optimistic style might see failure as temporary, while a pessimistic style sees it as permanent.

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### Optimistic Explanatory Style

Definition: Tendency to attribute positive events to internal, stable, and global causes, and negative events to external, unstable, and specific causes.

Example: "I aced the test because I’m smart (internal), but I failed because the test was unfair (external)."

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### Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Definition: Tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes, and positive events to external, unstable, and specific causes.

Example: "I failed because I’m not smart (internal), but I aced the test because it was easy (external)."

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### Actor/Observer Bias

Definition: The tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors but others’ actions to dispositional factors.

Example: If you yell, it’s because you’re stressed (situational), but if someone else yells, it’s because they’re rude (dispositional).

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### Fundamental Attribution Error

Definition: Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.

Example: Assuming someone is lazy for being late, ignoring that they might have been stuck in traffic.

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### Self-Serving Bias

Definition: Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Example: "I won because I’m talented, but I lost because the referee was biased."

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### Internal Locus of Control

Definition: Belief that one’s actions control outcomes.

Example: "I succeeded because I worked hard."

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### External Locus of Control

Definition: Belief that external forces control outcomes.

Example: "I failed because the test was unfair."

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### Mere Exposure Effect

Definition: Preferring stimuli simply because they are familiar.

Example: Liking a song more after hearing it multiple times.

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### Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Definition: Expectations influencing behavior to make the expectation come true.

Example: Believing you’ll fail a test, so you don’t study, and then you fail.

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### Social Comparison

Definition: Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Example: Comparing your salary to a friend’s.

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### Upward Social Comparison

Definition: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better.

Example: Comparing your grades to the top student’s.

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### Downward Social Comparison

Definition: Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse.

Example: Comparing your grades to someone who failed.

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### Relative Deprivation

Definition: Feeling deprived compared to others.

Example: Feeling poor because your neighbor has a nicer car.

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### Stereotype

Definition: Generalized belief about a group of people.

Example: Assuming all athletes are unintelligent.

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### Cognitive Load

Definition: The amount of mental effort being used in working memory.

Example: Struggling to solve a math problem while also listening to music.

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### Prejudice

Definition: Negative attitude toward a group or its members.

Example: Disliking someone because of their race.

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### Discrimination

Definition: Negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their gender.

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### Implicit Attitudes

Definition: Unconscious attitudes that influence behavior.

Example: Automatically associating certain names with specific races.

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### Just-World Phenomenon

Definition: Believing the world is fair and people get what they deserve.

Example: Thinking someone is poor because they’re lazy.

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### Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Definition: Perceiving members of an out-group as similar to each other.

Example: Thinking all members of a rival sports team are aggressive.

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### In-Group Bias

Definition: Favoring members of one’s own group.

Example: Preferring to hire someone from your alma mater.

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### Ethnocentrism

Definition: Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture.

Example: Thinking your country’s traditions are superior.

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### Belief Perseverance

Definition: Clinging to beliefs even after they’ve been discredited.

Example: Still believing a rumor after it’s proven false.

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### Confirmation Bias

Definition: Seeking information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Example: Only reading news that aligns with your political views.

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### Cognitive Dissonance

Definition: Mental discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors.

Example: Feeling guilty for smoking while knowing it’s unhealthy.

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### Social Norms

Definition: Unwritten rules for acceptable behavior in a group.

Example: Standing in line at a store.

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### Social Influence Theory

Definition: How others influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Example: Following fashion trends because everyone else is.

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### Normative Social Influence

Definition: Conforming to gain social approval or avoid disapproval.

Example: Dressing formally for a wedding to fit in.

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### Informational Social Influence

Definition: Conforming because we believe others have accurate information.

Example: Following a crowd during an emergency.

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### Persuasion

Definition: Attempting to change someone’s attitude or behavior.

Example: A commercial convincing you to buy a product.

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### Elaboration Likelihood Model

Definition: A theory explaining how attitudes are formed or changed through central or peripheral routes.

Example: Buying a car because of its features (central) or because a celebrity endorsed it (peripheral).

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### Central Route

Definition: Persuasion through logical arguments and evidence.

Example: Choosing a phone because of its technical specs.

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### Peripheral Route

Definition: Persuasion through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotions.

Example: Buying a product because of a catchy jingle.

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### Halo Effect

Definition: Assuming someone has positive traits because of one known positive trait.

Example: Thinking a good-looking person is also intelligent.

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### Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Definition: Getting someone to agree to a small request before asking for a larger one.

Example: Asking for a small donation before requesting a larger one.

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### Door-in-the-Face Technique

Definition: Asking for a large request first, expecting it to be rejected, then asking for a smaller one.

Example: Asking for $100, then settling for $10.

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### Conformity

Definition: Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard.

Example: Laughing at a joke because everyone else is.

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### Obedience

Definition: Following orders from an authority figure.

Example: A soldier following a commanding officer’s orders.

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### Individualism

Definition: Valuing personal independence and self-reliance.

Example: Preferring to work alone rather than in a group.

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### Collectivism

Definition: Valuing group harmony and interdependence.

Example: Prioritizing family needs over personal desires.

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### Multiculturalism

Definition: Valuing and respecting diverse cultural backgrounds.

Example: Celebrating holidays from different cultures.

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### Group Polarization

Definition: Group discussions leading to more extreme positions.

Example: A political group becoming more radical after a meeting.

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### Groupthink

Definition: Suppressing dissent to maintain group harmony.

Example: A team ignoring potential risks to avoid conflict.

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### Diffusion of Responsibility

Definition: Feeling less responsible in a group.

Example: Not helping someone in need because others are present.

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### Social Loafing

Definition: Exerting less effort in a group than when alone.

Example: Doing less work on a group project.

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### Deindividuation

Definition: Losing self-awareness in a group, leading to uninhibited behavior.

Example: Rioters behaving destructively because they feel anonymous.

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### Social Facilitation

Definition: Improved performance in the presence of others.

Example: Running faster in a race than when practicing alone.

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### False Consensus Effect

Definition: Overestimating how much others share our beliefs.

Example: Assuming everyone loves your favorite band.

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### Superordinate Goals

Definition: Shared goals that require cooperation.

Example: Two rival teams working together to win a tournament.

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### Social Traps

Definition: Situations where individuals act in their own self-interest, harming the group.

Example: Overfishing depleting a shared resource.

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### Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Definition: Psychologists who study workplace behavior.

Example: Improving employee productivity through better management techniques.

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### Burnout

Definition: Physical and emotional exhaustion from prolonged stress.

Example: A nurse feeling drained after years of long shifts.

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### Altruism

Definition: Selfless concern for others’ well-being.

Example: Donating money to charity without expecting anything in return.

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### Prosocial Behavior

Definition: Actions that benefit others.

Example: Helping a stranger carry groceries.

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### Social Debt

Definition: Feeling obligated to repay others for their help.

Example: Helping a friend move after they helped you.

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### Social Reciprocity Norm

Definition: Expectation that people will respond in kind to others’ actions.

Example: Returning a favor after someone helps you.

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### Social Responsibility Norm

Definition: Expectation to help those in need.

Example: Donating to disaster relief efforts.

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### Bystander Effect

Definition: Less likelihood to help when others are present.

Example: Not intervening in an emergency because others are around.

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### Situational Variables

Definition: External factors influencing behavior.

Example: Being more likely to help in a well-lit area than a dark alley.

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### Attentional Variable

Definition: Factors affecting where attention is directed.

Example: Not noticing a friend in a crowded room because you’re focused on someone else.

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### Psychodynamic Theory

Definition: Freud’s theory emphasizing unconscious processes and childhood experiences.

Example: Analyzing dreams to uncover hidden desires.

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### Unconscious Processes

Definition: Mental processes outside conscious awareness.

Example: Forgetting a traumatic event as a defense mechanism.

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### Ego Defense Mechanisms

Definition: Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

Example: Rationalizing a failure to protect self-esteem.

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### Denial

Definition: Refusing to accept reality.

Example: Ignoring a doctor’s diagnosis of a serious illness.

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### Displacement

Definition: Redirecting emotions to a safer target.

Example: Yelling at a friend after a bad day at work.

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### Projection

Definition: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others.

Example: Accusing someone of being angry when you’re actually angry.

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### Rationalization

Definition: Creating logical explanations for irrational behavior.

Example: Justifying cheating on a test because "everyone does it."

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### Reaction Formation

Definition: Expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings.

Example: Being overly nice to someone you dislike.

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### Regression

Definition: Reverting to childlike behavior under stress.

Example: Throwing a tantrum when frustrated.

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### Repression

Definition: Blocking painful memories from consciousness.

Example: Forgetting a traumatic childhood event.

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### Sublimation

Definition: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.

Example: Using aggression to excel in sports.

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### Projective Tests

Definition: Psychological tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Example: The Rorschach inkblot test.

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### Preconscious Mind

Definition: Thoughts not currently in awareness but easily accessible.

Example: Remembering a childhood memory when prompted.

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### Unconscious Mind

Definition: Thoughts and memories outside conscious awareness.

Example: Repressed traumatic experiences.

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### Humanistic Psychology

Definition: Emphasizing personal growth and self-actualization.

Example: Focusing on a client’s potential rather than their past.

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### Unconditional Regard

Definition: Accepting and supporting someone without judgment.

Example: A therapist showing empathy to a client regardless of their actions.

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### Self-Actualizing Tendency

Definition: Innate drive to reach one’s full potential.

Example: Pursuing a passion despite obstacles.

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### Social-Cognitive Theory

Definition: Emphasizes how behavior, environment, and cognition interact.

Example: Learning aggression by observing others.

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### Reciprocal Determinism

Definition: The interaction between behavior, environment, and personal factors.

Example: A student’s effort (behavior) affects their grades (environment), which in turn affects their motivation (personal factor).

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### Self-Concept

Definition: How one perceives and evaluates themselves.

Example: Seeing yourself as intelligent and kind.

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### Self-Efficacy

Definition: Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Example: Feeling confident about passing a test.

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### Self-Esteem

Definition: Overall sense of self-worth.

Example: Feeling good about yourself despite failures.

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### Trait Theories

Definition: Theories that personality is composed of stable traits.

Example: Describing someone as outgoing or shy.

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### Big Five Theory

Definition: A trait theory identifying five core personality dimensions.

Example: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

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### Agreeableness

Definition: A Big Five trait characterized by compassion and cooperativeness.

Example: Always being willing to help others.

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### Openness to Experience

Definition: A Big Five trait characterized by creativity and curiosity.

Example: Enjoying trying new foods and traveling.

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### Extraversion

Definition: A Big Five trait characterized by sociability and energy.

Example: Feeling energized at social gatherings.

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### Conscientiousness

Definition: A Big Five trait characterized by organization and responsibility.

Example: Always meeting deadlines and keeping a tidy workspace.

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### Emotional Stability

Definition: A Big Five trait characterized by calmness and resilience.

Example: Staying calm under pressure.

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### Personality Inventories

Definition: Questionnaires designed to measure personality traits.

Example: The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory).

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### Factor Analysis

Definition: A statistical method to identify clusters of related traits.

Example: Grouping traits like talkativeness and sociability under "extraversion."

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Let me know if you need further clarification!