Crusades and Renaissance—Birth of the Renaissance—Notes#3
The Big Idea
The Renaissance was a rebirth of learning and art
Key Terms and People
Renaissance-period of the revival of art and learning
humanism-an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements
secular-a society that is worldly rather than spiritual
patron-financial supporter
BACKGROUND: During the late Middle Ages, Europe suffered from both war and plague. Those who survived wanted to celebrate life and the human spirit. They began to question institutions of the Middle Ages, which had been unable to prevent war or to relieve suffering brought by the plague. Some people questioned the Church, which taught Christians to endure suffering while they awaited their rewards in heaven. Some writers and artists began to express this new spirit and to experiment with different styles. These men and women would greatly change how Europeans saw themselves and their world
From approximately 1300 to 1600, Europe experienced an explosion of creativity in art, architecture, writing, and thought. Historians call this period the Renaissance
The term means “rebirth,” and in this context, it refers to a revival of art and learning
People of the Renaissance hoped to bring back the culture of classical Greece and Rome
Yet in striving to revive the past, they created something new
The contributions made during this period led to innovative styles of art and literature
They also led to new values, such as individualism, or a belief in the importance of the individual
Although the developments of the Renaissance may seem to be a complete departure from the medieval era, they grew out of several important changes in society, politics, economics, and learning. These changes laid the foundation for the Renaissance
As a result of waves of famine and disease, Europe’s population in 1450 was much smaller than it had been in 1300
With far fewer people to feed, the general standard of living was much higher
People were also generally better educated
Schools in the growing towns provided at least a basic education, which was extended by recently developed universities
As literacy rates increased, so did the demand for books
Increased trade led to the development of a new class of people between the nobility at the top and the peasants at the bottom: the middle class
The merchants, bankers, and tradespeople in the middle class had more than enough income to meet their basic needs
They had extra money to buy luxury goods and fine homes, which helped to expand the economy still further
After the fall of Rome, knowledge of Greek language and learning all but disappeared in Europe
It was maintained in the Byzantine Empire, which lay at the crossroads of Europe and Asia
In 1453, when the Ottomans captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, many eminent Byzantine scholars fled to Italy
With their knowledge of the language and learning of classical Greece, they contributed to the new ways of thinking that helped lead to the Renaissance
Many Greek texts, along with the knowledge to read them, were also preserved in the libraries of the Islamic Empire
The capital of Islamic Spain, Córdoba, was a center of classical learning
Scholars there wrote commentaries in Arabic on the works of Greek writers such as Aristotle and Plato. Jewish scholars in Spain translated these commentaries into Hebrew
Later, these scholars translated into Latin both the original Greek texts and the commentaries
As a result, Western scholars visiting the libraries of Islamic Spain were able to read the works of Greek writers
Western Europeans also learned the technology of papermaking from Islamic Spain
Paper was first manufactured in China around 105 AD
In 751, technicians in the Abbasid caliphate learned the process
Because paper made it easier to create and store books, its use contributed to the growth of libraries
Papermaking soon spread through the Islamic world
By 1400, paper mills were to be found in France, Italy, and Germany
The availability of paper later helped make possible the development of printing
Along with famine and disease, Europe had experienced almost constant warfare
Over the course of the 15th century, peace returned to much of the continent
The Hundred Years’ War between France and England ended in 1453
The victory against England confirmed the French king’s authority
A period of civil war followed in England, but when Henry VII came to power in 1485, England was again ruled by a strong central power
In Spain, the Reconquista, or Reconquest, was completed in 1493 by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile
This ended Islamic rule and brought to a close 200 years of war on the peninsula
The final major factor that contributed to the Renaissance was the rise of city-states in Italy
At a time when most of Europe was rural, agricultural, and manorial, Italy was much more urban and commercial
Since cities are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breeding ground for an intellectual revolution
Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, led to the growth of large city-states in northern Italy
By the year 1000, Italian cities were at the forefront of an impressive economic expansion that would carry on into the Renaissance some 300 years later
Two decades into the 11th century, this financial success would allow Italian cities to begin to ignore the German emperor who claimed to control them
Traditionally, wealth in Europe was based on land ownership
The growth in foreign trade created an economy based on commerce rather than agriculture
Merchants needed financial services, such as the ability to transfer money from one place to another
This led to the rise of banks, which soon became an important part of the city-states’ economy
Some crucial aspects of finance, which helped develop the modern economy, were pioneered by the banks of northern Italy
A wealthy merchant class developed in the Italian city-states
Unlike nobles, merchants did not inherit land and social rank
To succeed in business, they used their wits
As a result, many successful merchants believed they deserved power and wealth because of their individual merit
This belief in individual achievement became important during the Renaissance
In the 1300s, the bubonic plague struck these cities hard, killing up to 60 percent of the population
This brought economic changes
Because there were fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages
With few opportunities to expand business, merchants began to pursue other interests, such as supporting the arts
Political development in Italy was unlike that in other parts of Europe
Whereas countries like England and France steadily moved toward the consolidation of power into the hands of dynastic royal families, Italy remained fragmented
One reason for this was the development of a strong urban nobility that intermarried over time with rising commercial families
These noble families with commercial backing were then able to establish vital, independent bases in a number of Italian cities, mostly in northern and central Italy
Venice is in the north of Italy, on the Adriatic Coast
The city is built on a lagoon and is made up of over 100 islands where people first moved to find safety from raids after the fall of Rome
It grew into an international powerhouse after shedding the domination of first the Byzantines and then the Franks
The Crusades boosted Venice’s standing even further, as Venetian merchants made fortunes supplying and transporting the crusaders
At this time, the city established a Mediterranean empire, controlling Crete and a number of other Greek islands
As an inland city, Milan lagged behind coastal trading powers such as Venice and Genoa in commercial terms
But it quickly arose as a center of manufacturing
Of Milan’s four principal industries—cloth, arms, metallurgy, and leather—cloth was the largest
But the trade in arms and metallurgy (tools, utensils, needles) was more profitable
Milanese body armor and weapons were prized throughout Europe and beyond
Trade was boosted in the 13th century by the opening of free passage along roads, canals, and rivers through much of northern Italy
In Milan, prosperity spurred civic pride and energy and resulted in an up swelling of artistic creativity, public building, and further entrepreneurial endeavor
Unfortunately, this was also a time of frequent warfare—against nearby cities such as Pavia and Como and also the forces of the Holy Roman Empire
By the late 800s, Naples (in the south of Italy on the west coast) was relatively free from Lombard attacks and able to concentrate on trade, mostly with the Arab world
Increased wealth led to a flowering of architecture, the arts, and scholarship
At the beginning of the 10th century, Naples was a flourishing, independent city-state
This came to an end in the 1130s, when Norman invaders took over southern Italy
Next came the German emperor, Henry VI, to oust the Normans in 1194
Finally, the armies of Charles of Anjou ejected the Germans and established the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily in 1266
The Angevin dynasty ruled from Naples, boosting trade, mostly in arms and luxury goods, and the city’s population, which grew to as much as 60,000 by the 1300s
Robert the Wise, king from 1309 to 1343, supported both public building and the arts, but the end of his reign marked the end of Neapolitan prosperity
Earthquakes in 1343 and 1349 and the Black Death in 1348 made sure that Naples limped along toward the Renaissance
Since the late 1200s, the city-state of Florence had a republican form of government
But during the Renaissance, Florence came under the rule of one powerful banking family, the Medici
The Medici bank had branch offices throughout Italy and in the major cities of Europe
Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time
In 1434, he won control of Florence’s government
He did not seek political office for himself but influenced members of the ruling council by giving them loans
For 30 years, he was dictator of Florence
Cosimo de Medici died in 1464, but his family continued to control Florence
His grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, came to power in 1469
Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, he ruled as a dictator yet kept up the appearance of having an elected government
By the mid-700s, Rome was the center of the Papal States—territories controlled by the pope
Rome’s wealthy, landholding families controlled the city and the papacy from about 900 until about 1050, when wealthy Romans whose money came from business and banking supported the papacy
In 1143, a revolt resulted in the Roman commune, in which Rome became a self-governing city with a republican constitution
As European scholars studied Greek writers and thinkers, they became more influenced by classical ideas
These ideas helped them develop a new outlook on life and art
The study of classical texts led to humanism, an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements
Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teaching as medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understand ancient Greek values
Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on classical traditions
Also, humanists popularized the study of subjects common to classical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy
These subjects are called the humanities
In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated their piety by wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods
However, humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending God
In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods
Most people remained devout Catholics
However, the basic spirit of Renaissance society was secular—worldly rather than spiritual, and concerned with the here and now instead of the hereafter
Even church leaders became more worldly
Some lived in beautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, and wore expensive clothes
Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified Rome and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for art
They became patrons of the arts by financially supporting artists
Renaissance merchants and wealthy families also became patrons of the arts
By having their portraits painted or by donating art to the city to place in public squares, the wealthy demonstrated their own importance
During the Renaissance, as the idea of the individual became increasingly important, Renaissance writers introduced the idea of the “ideal” individual
This ideal person was expected to create art and to try to master almost every area of study
A man who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.”
Later ages called such people “Renaissance men.”
Baldassare Castiglione wrote a book called The Courtier (1528) that described how to become such a person
A young man should be charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman
According to The Courtier, upper-class women should also know the classics and be charming. Yet they were not expected to seek fame.
They were expected to inspire art but rarely to create it
Upper-class Renaissance women were better educated than medieval women
However, most Renaissance women had little influence in politics
A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power
Born into the ruling family of the city-state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua
She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and built a famous art collection
She was also skilled in politics
When her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release.